History of Sindhis

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Sindhis are inhabitants of Sind (or Sindh), the region of arid plains and deserts located along the lower course of the Indus River as it flows on its journey from the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea. Both the terms Sindhi and Sind are derived from "Sindhu," the ancient name of the Indus. Modern Sindhis are descendants of the many peoples who have settled in the area from earliest times.

The Indus is central to the history of the Sindhis. It was along this river that the Harappan (or Indus Valley) civilization developed during the 3rd millennium bc. Usually identified with Dravidian peoples, this sophisticated urban culture matched the achievements of Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. The Harappans left an archeological record of contemporary life in Sind, but we know less of the centuries following their decline.

From around 1700 bc onward, successive waves of Aryan invaders entered the Indian subcontinent from the northwest. The earliest of these nomadic tribes settled in the Punjab, where the outlines of Hindu Vedic religion and society emerged. This was quite different from urban Harappan culture. It was nonurban, based on the herding of cattle; its religion was dominated by male deities and sacrificial ritual; and its society was organized into a hierarchy of classes (castes), with the Aryans at the top and local non-Aryan peoples at the lowest levels. As the Aryans pressed steadily southward along the Indus Valley, their culture replaced that of the Harap-pans.

The Harappan towns and cities disappeared, with Aryan (Hindu) civilization emerging as the dominant culture of Sind. Subsequently, groups such as the Persians, Greeks, Scythians, and White Huns who entered the region were absorbed into the existing structure of the Aryan-dominated society. During the 3rd and 2nd centuries bc, Sind formed part of the Mauryan Empire. At this time, Buddhism was the main religion in the region, though it was subsequently reabsorbed by Hinduism.

Arabs reached the mouth of the Indus by sea in ad 711 and within a few years gained control of Sind. From this time on, the region was dominated by Muslims and the culture of Islam. Around ad 900, the Arab governors of Sind—at first subject to the Caliph in Baghdad—established their own dynastic rule. Of mixed Arab and local blood, Sumra and Samma chieftains governed for several centuries, eventually being replaced by invaders from Afghanistan between 1518 and 1522.

By the end of the 16th century, Sind was annexed by the Mughals. It remained part of the Mughal Empire until the mid-18th century. Sind was conquered by the British in 1843. (The British General, Sir Charles Napier, in charge of the operation, garnered a degree of notoriety when, after his successful campaign, he sent his superiors the one word dispatch "Peccavi," which is Latin for "I have sinned.")

Sind formed part of the Bombay Presidency of British India until 1937, when it was made a separate province. Following Pakistan's independence, Sind was integrated into West Pakistan in 1955. In 1970 Sind was reestablished as a province of Pakistan.

 

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LOCATION AND HOMELAND

Sind lies in southern Pakistan. It shares a common boundary with the Republic of India on the east. The Pakistani province of Baluchistan lies to the west and north, while the Punjab is located to the northeast. Sind covers an area of 140,913 sq km (54,407 sq mi), which is slightly larger than New York State. Geographically, Sind falls into three distinct regions.

In the west lies the Kirthar Range, a steep wall of mountains rising from 1,220 m (4,000 ft) in the south to nearly 2,400 m (approximately 8,000 ft) in the north. This forms a sharp line of separation between the rugged hills of Baluchistan and the fertile Indus plains. The Indus River flows in a southwesterly direction through the heart of Sind. It is here that agriculture and population, as well as Sind's major cities, are concentrated. To the east of the Indus plains, Sind extends into the Th ar or Great Indian Desert.

The climate of Sind is subject to extremes. The mean maximum June temperature in Jacobabad in northern Sind is 45.5°C (114°F). Jacobabad has also recorded the highest temperature in the subcontinent, at 53°C (127°F). Temperatures drop to 2°C (36°F) in winter and fall below freezing at higher elevations. Annual rainfall averages less than 20 cm (approximately 8 in) and in some areas falls below 10 cm (4 in). This extreme aridity is reflected in the natural vegetation, which consists mainly of thorn scrub, acacias, and tamarisk.

Population statistics for Sind are notoriously inaccurate. In 1998 Pakistani government sources placed the population of Sind Province at 30,439,893, which, given natural increase since the beginning of the 2000s, led to 35 million as an estimate of the population of Sind by 2008. With several millions of Sindhis living in India and elsewhere (Hong Kong, Singapore, the United States, etc.), the world-wide population of Sindhis is estimated to be over 40 million. Although unified by religion and language, this population reflects the diversity of Sind's past in its ethnic composition. Many Sindhis are descended from Rājput and Jat groups of western India and are known as Samma Sindhis (descendants of Yadavs) and Sumra Sindhis (descendants of Parwar Rājputs).

The Bhutto tribe, which gave Pakistan two prime ministers (Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and more recently his daughter, Benazir), are Sumras. Other Rājput and Jat groups are more recent converts to Islam. Some Sindhis, such as the Sayyids and Pathans, trace their ancestry back to Muslim invaders of the past. The Mallahs are fishing peoples settled along the river and in the delta region. The Talpurs, former rulers of Sind, are Baluchs from Baluchistan. However, they now speak Sindhi as a mother tongue and have been assimilated into Sindhi society.

Most Sindhis are Muslim, but before the creation of India and Pakistan some 20% of the Sindhi population was Hindu. In 1947, when the successor states to British India gained their independence, there was a mass exodus of Hindu Sindhis to India. Sindhi communities in India are concentrated in Delhi and the states of Gujarat, Rājasthān, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh. At the same time, many Muslims in India fled their homeland and settled in Sind. Known as muhājirs, these immigrants and their descendants are culturally quite distinct from the Sindhis.

 

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LANGUAGE

The peoples of Sind speak the language known as Sindhi. It is an Indo-Aryan tongue but has a large number of Persian and Arabic words, reflecting centuries of Muslim influence in the region. Vicholi is the standard dialect of Sindhi, while Siraiki, Thareli, and Lari are other local forms of the language. Kachchi, a dialect of Sindhi, is spoken in neighboring areas of India (the Rann of Kutch, and the Kathiawar Peninsula). The Sindhi script is similar to that used for Urdu, yet different enough not to be read easily by a person who has learned Urdu. The script is Perso-Arabic in origin, even though Sindhi is an Indo-Aryan language. Hindus use a form of the Devanagari script for writing Sindhi. Some 2.5 million Sindhi-speakers lived in India as of 2008.

Perhaps the language closest to the original Prakit and Sanskrit of all the tongues of north India, Sindhi has a literary tradition that extends back to the 11th century. The earliest Sindhi works were poetry showing both Islamic and Hindu influences, though later epics emerged as important. Perhaps the best known Sindhi poet, Shah Abdul Letif (1690-1773) emerged during the early 18th century, while modern Sindhi literature consists of works of both poetry (dominated by the giant figure of Shaikh Ayaz [1923-1997]) and prose.

 

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CULTURAL HERITAGE
Important sites, such as Mohenjo-Daro, Amri, and Kot Diji, have left a record of the achievements of the ancient Harappan civilization in the areas of city-planning and building, economic production, social organization, and religion. It is generally held that there is little direct continuity of cultural tradition between the Harappans and modern-day society. However, some writers trace elements of modern Sindhi folk culture to Harappan times. They argue, for example, that the bullock carts used by farmers along the Indus today, or the pipes played by Sindhi shepherds, differ little from those used by the Harappans, as revealed by the archeological record.

Sindhis have a rich tradition of folk literature and mystical Sūfī poetry dating to the 14th century ad or even earlier. The legend of Dodo Chanesar, for example, an early Sindhi folk tale, is thought to date to the time of the Sumras. The most famous Sindhi poet, however, is Shah Abdul Latif, whose work, Shāh Jo Risālo, is known and recited throughout Sind. Sachal Sarmast (ad 1739-1829) is another eminent Sūfī in the Sindhi literary tradition. In addition to poetry, Sindhi folk culture embraces music, using instruments, such as the sahnāī (a wind instrument), dances, songs, and riddles.

WORK

Traditionally, Sind lacked the pan-Indian four-tiered caste system (Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra). Brahmans, who elsewhere in the Indian subcontinent enjoyed high ritual status, were numerically insignificant. They were neither learned nor affluent, functioning only as priests to the Hindu trading castes. There was no question of royal patronage as the region was under Muslim rule. Since no Sindhi Hindus formed part of the nobility or army, Kshatriyas were notably absent from the region, as were Sudras, the castes who were tillers of the soil (these were mainly Muslims) or the service castes. The main Hindu communities in Sind were, thus, of the trading caste—e.g. the Lohanas, Bhatias, Khatris, Chhaprus and Sahtas—and social hierarchies among these groups were primarily based on wealth. This social structure was unique to Sind, and regional identity became more pronounced than caste identity.

Around 70% of Sindhis, the majority of these being Muslims, derive their living from cultivation. Given the meager rainfall totals in the region, agriculture is dependent almost entirely on irrigation. The principal source of water is the Indus River, on which there are three major irrigation dams (called "barrages") in Sind. They are the Ghuddu and Sukkur Barrages in the north, and the Kotri Barrage in the south near Hyderabad. The major crops grown include wheat, millet, maize, rice, cotton, and oilseeds. Fruits, such as mangoes, dates, and bananas, are also cultivated. Away from the Indus Valley, herding sheep, goats, and camels has become the dominant economic activity. Fishing is important along the Indus River and the Arabian Sea coast, where prawns, shrimp, pomfret, shad, and catfish are caught.

Although Sind is essentially a rural province, the provincial capital, Karachi, is Pakistan's largest city, with a population of over 13 million inhabitants. Karachi is Pakistan's leading commercial and industrial center, giving Sind an important role in the country's economy. Industrial plants include cotton mills, sugar refineries, cement factories, steel mills, and automobile manufacturers.

 

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Ethnolinguistic group

Description​

Sindhis are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group who speak the Sindhi language and are native to the Pakistani province of Sindh. The historical homeland of Sindhis is bordered by the southeastern part of Balochistan, the Bahawalpur region of Punjab and the Kutch region of Gujarat.

Languages spoken: Sindhi, Hindi, English Language, Urdu, Sanskrit, Assamese, Hindustani language, Classical Arabic

Australia: 2,635
Bangladesh: 15,000
Canada: 12,065
Hong Kong: 20,000
India: 2,772,364
Pakistan: 34,252,262



Australia: 2,635
Bangladesh: 15,000
Canada: 12,065
Hong Kong: 20,000
India: 2,772,364
Pakistan: 34,252,262

 

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Huzaifa.
@MHuzaifaNizam

Accidentally discovered something great today. I was checking out old European maps of South Asia where one referred to the Mughal Indus Valley province as Sindia. Upon research from a book from 1748, I learnt of the Europeans concepts of Sindia and the Sindian sea over Pakistan.

British map from 1816 depicting the region of modern Pakistan under the label of “Sindetic Hindoostan”. [Sindetic Hindoostan or the country of the sinde(Indus) was 1 of the 4 early divisions of South Asia made by the British.] twitter.com/MHuzaifaNizam/…

German map from 1848 depicting the region of modern day Pakistan under the label of ‘Induslander’. The map reads “Die Induslander nebst Afghanistan und sud Turkestan” — “The Indus land together with Afghanistan and south Turkestan.”

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The map reads “Die Induslander nebst Afghanistan und sud Turkestan” — “The Indus land together with Afghanistan and south Turkestan.”




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Mir Muhammad Nasir Khan, the Talpur ruler who fought the Battle of Miani.

Mir Nasir Khan Talpur was the last Amir of the land that included Sindh and parts of present-day Balochistan and was one of the most active administrators after the decline of the Mughal Empire.

He made Hyderabad the capital of his empire and constructed two forts in the city known as the Pakka Qilla (Brick Fort) and the Kacha Qilla (Mud Fort) and he also built the Maula Ali Qadam Gah (The footsteps of Ali), a Shia shrine at the center of the city. He was a strong follower of the Sufi tradition. He donated a lot of his personal wealth to the Tomb of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai at Bhit Shah.

He and his 30,000 forces were defeated by the forces of the British Empire led by Charles Napier at the Battle of Miani. Mir Nasir Khan Talpur's defeat was an ill omen for the last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.



Mir Nasir Khan Talpur was the last Amir of the land that included Sindh and parts of present-day Balochistan and was one of the most active administrators after the decline of the Mughal Empire.

 

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HM King George V Of The United Kingdom With HH Huzur Pur Nur Sarkar-i-Khairpur Mir Sir Faiz Muhammad Khan I Sahib Talpur Of Khairpur (GCIE), On Arrival In Khairpur House, Karachi.

Sir Faiz Muhammad Khan I Ruled Over Khairpur From 1894 To 1908, And Is Still Remembered For His Generosity.

 

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Boat builders at Sukhur, Circa 1890.

Sukkur is an ancient town on the west bank of the Indus, with the town of Rohri on the opposing bank. It is best known today for the Sukkur Barrage nearby, built 1923-32, which controls one of the largest irrigation systems in the world, and as a base from which to visit the archaeological site of Mohenjo Daro, which flourished 5000 years ago as a centre of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Modern Sukkur, which was developed in the 1840's by Sir Charles Napier after the conquest of Sindh, is an important commercial and industrial city and a centre for trade with Afghanistan. Boat building was an extremely important industry here in the 19th century employing men from all over Pakistan.

The Indus flows from Tibet in the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea, and nomadic boat peoples of the Lower Indus Basin in Sindh used to travel freely up and down the river in their wooden craft, until the barrages contructed across it impeded their movements from the 20th century onward. Called the Mohanas, some of the boat people still live on their boats near Sukkur, although many are forced to live in settlements on the river banks.

Traditional wooden boats are also used as fishing vessels, and while both men and women went out in the boats in the past, women are less visible now due to the paucity of fish caused by over-management of the river and over-fishing.

This photograph is from an album of 91 prints apparently compiled by P. J. Corbett, a PWD engineer involved in irrigation work at the famine relief camp at Shetpal Tank in 1897, and in canal construction in Sindh in the early 1900's.

Photograph of men at work constructing wooden boats at Sukkur in the Sindh province now in Pakistan taken by an unknown photographer in the 1890's.

 

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Harappan
The genome of an ancient Harappan woman from Rakhigarhi was recently published. The study further confirms the absence of Eurasian steppe DNA (Aryan) among ancient Harappans implying that Aryan migrations occured later which many northern South Asians can trace their partial lineage from (mixed with others).

Additionally, contrary to the paper published last year that suggested ancient Harappans were Iranian farmers (pre-Aryan) mixed with South Asian hunter-gatherers, now there is new evidence that this mixing occured before the advent of agriculture in Iran. Therefore, it were the Iranian hunter-gatherers who got mixed with some South Asian hunter-gatherers to eventually form the Harappan Civilization, and its development of agriculture either occured independently or through the transmission of culture from the Fertile Crescent (via trade).

The only problem with this study is that these findings are based on a single person's skeletal remains found in a grave from Rakhigarhi which is located at Harappan Civilization's eastern most periphery. There are pending results from others, and a need to analyze the DNA of excavated skeletal remains from other Harappan sites. The Harappan Civilization was geographically very widespread, so it is very likely that ancient Harappan DNA had regional variations with areas closer to Iran (west) having more Iranian DNA, and the influx of slaves/migrants from its east/south impacting the DNA as well.

Btw, the attached image uses the term Andamese hunter-gatherers instead of South Asian hunter-gatherers or Ancient Ancestoral South Indians (AASI)....it's the same thing.

 

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Nagarparkar:
Land of History and Architectural Marvels
A small town neighboring the Indian border in Sindh. Situated at the foot of the dramatic and mineral-rich Karunjhar hill, the desert is home to centuries-old Jain and Hindu temples, a white-marble mosque, a magical well and thousands of resident snakes!

Born from under the sea, Nagarparkar is a small town situated at the foot of the dramatic and mineral-rich Karunjhar hills, and neighbors the Indian border in Sindh. Surrounded by rocky belts and sand dunes, the desert is home to centuries-old Jain and Hindu temples, a white marble mosque, a magical well, thousands of resident snakes, memorial stones, granite deposits and rare flora and fauna.

It is said that the Karunjhar hills provide 1.25 kg of gold every day in the form of red granite stone, china clay, and honey. An embodiment of remarkable architecture, there are over twelve Jain temples found in the area.

These date back to as far as the 14th century – the era when the Jain architectural expression was at its ultimate – and are now one of the important heritage sites of Pakistan. Some of the notable shrines include; Karoonjar Jain, Virvah Jain, Gori and a cluster of three temples at Bodhesar etc.

The Gori temple in Nagarparkar area of Tharparkar district

These are richly decorated with sculptures and paintings. The carvings on the pillars and entrances of these temples are magnificent for their intricacy. One of these sanctuaries is believed to have been built by a Jain woman and is locally called Poni Daharo.

The walls of these abandoned buildings are geometric steps of marble — a particular style that shows up everywhere from the temple’s steps to the frames carved inside some of its walls and are widely seen among Jain constructions.

A glimpse into desert life
The canopies at the entrance of these temples are decorated with paintings that represent Jain mythology. It is believed that the frescoes at Gori temple are some of the oldest Jain frescoes in existence.
Unfortunately, not much has been done to conserve these heritage sites and some are merely ruins of what were once considered architectural wonders. Nagarparkar is home to almost 200,000 inhabitants, who mostly belong to modest backgrounds.

The town is majorly inhabited by Hindus, who have historically lived in harmony with the Muslim minority. In fact, the famous temples of the area make it mostly a town of the Hindus and Muslim pilgrims who visit each year to perform religious rituals or attend meals at the local shrines.

Women carrying water in Tharparkar district, Sindh

Bhodesar Mosque

Alongside the pond at the foothill of the Karunjhar lies a beautiful, shining white mosque. This remarkable structure, built entirely with cold and welcoming marble, is said to have been built by Sultan Mehmood Begra, the ruler of Gujarat. An inscription on the mosque lists the year 1505, which is also a reminder of the Jain-inspired architecture at the mosque.

Bhodesar Temples (Jai), Nagarparkar, Built around the 9th century CE by a Jain woman named Poni Daharo

 

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Durga Mata Temple

Found on the Churrio Jabal hill, this historic Hindu sanctuary hosts up to 200,000 pilgrims annually on Shivratri. Visitors bring cremated ashes of their departed beloveds to immerse in the holy water.

Ancient Bhodeser Jain Temple, Nagarparkar, Sindh, Pakistan.

The valuable and multi-coloured hill supporting the temple is mined for its rare and expensive granite, which is posing a serious threat to the foundation of the house of the Hindu goddess, Durga.

Marvi’s Well

Located in the Bhalwa village, this well is considered as one of the primary cultural standpoints of the Thar Desert and has now been extended into a cultural center. This complex is a historical reminder of the story of Umar and Marvi. Umar Soomro, a local ruler of the area in the 13th century, fell in love with the beautiful Marvi while she was drawing water from this well.

The story, however, takes a bleak turn where after continuous rejection, King Umar kidnapped the girl and kept her hostage for a year in hopes for her to settle one day.

But after realizing that no number of jewels could waive Marvi’s love for her fiancé back in her town, alas, he had to let her go. Marvi was immortalized because of her strong-will, determined character and her pure love for her homeland. She is remembered today as one of the bravest women in Sindhi history.

Lodging and Logistics

What was once a remote taluka, attended only by Hindu pilgrims, was connected to the rest of the world with a road in 2008, and since then, increasing numbers of visitors are responsible for the lack of upkeep of the prevalent temples. The area is almost two hours away from Mithi, which can be reached by road from Karachi via Mirpurkhas.

Lodging facilities have been almost non-existent in the area, except for a few rest houses that are only open to government employees and their families.

However, in 2017, the Sindh culture and tourism ministry opened the ‘Rooplo Kolhi Resort’ at Nagarparkar, in hopes of promoting tourism in the area.
On the other hand, ones with wandering souls can rent a charpai, a traditional woven bed used in the Indian subcontinent, from any local restaurant or dhaba to spend the night under the starry skies of Thar.

 

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Sindh’s population, religion and sect etc. according to 1881 census.


Total population ....... 2,542,976.

Male .........1,387,576
Female .....1,155,400
Muslim .....1,887,204
Hindu ...... 305,079
Sikh ..........126,976
Christian.. 6,082
Parsi......... 1,063
Jew............ 153

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Block printing

Block printing in the subcontinent originally has its roots in the Indus Valley civilisation, where the famous Sindhi ajrak was also handcrafted and dyed. While the essence of this technique is over 4000 years old, with time the process has evolved and has been brought into commercial production. The dyes, variety of fabrics, the patterns and the designs have all progressed according to current fashion trends, but the elements of wooden block carvings, which are delicately and carefully hand-stamped by local artisans, more or less remain in practice even today.

Block prints are a timeless trend and favour the ethos of what we call slow and sustainable fashion. A block printed tunic you buy one year is unlikely to go out of fashion the next year, or the next. Moreover, handicrafts like block prints fall well in line with responsible fashion; communities of artisans in rural areas do benefit from the business that comes in and that’s just the core of its strength.

 

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Tomb of Mian Yar Muhammad kalhoro who was first Kalhoro ruler of Sindh, who after wandering about northern Sindh and Baluchistan upon warlike expedition's,

Finally settled down at Khudabad, in Dadu of Sindh Pakistan. He died in 1718 A.D. He built tomb for himself before death.

About 4200 years ago, zebu (humped bull) of Indus Valley of Pakistan origin, was found in abundance in Fertile Crescent, Egypt & Mesopotamia etc.

Descendants of cattle of ancient Indus Valley of Pakistan are herded in each continental tropics region today since over 4000 years.

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Thar Desert boasts rich architecture

https://nation.com.pk/NewsSource/haber

Anadolu
September 13, 2021

Pakistan's Thar Desert, otherwise famous for its frequent famine spells and treacherous weather, boasts a spectacular architectural treasure which authorities are finally trying to preserve.

Surrounded by crowded streets, in the midst of Umerkot city in the Sindh province, stands a vast fort described as a transitional point of the Mughal dynasty that ruled India for over three centuries.

Vendors repeatedly make loud chants about their wares to attract buyers at a bustling bazaar just a few meters away from the fort entrance.

Scores of auto-rickshaws are also parked in a long line near the outer wall of the fort, turning it into a permanent and illegal transport terminal.

Located some 60 kilometers (37 miles) from the Indian border, the 11th-century citadel is the birthplace of Akbar, the third emperor of the Mughal dynasty, who was born in 1542, when his father was on the run after being defeated by Afghan King Sher Shah Suri.

On his way to Iran, Humayun was given refuge by the Hindu Rajput ruler of Umerkot, Rana Parshad Sodha, until the defeated emperor regained his strength and raised an army to snatch his kingdom from Suri’s successors just four years after Akbar's birth.

According to another account, Akbar was born in the middle of a jungle located five kilometers (around three miles) from the fort, where a monument has been constructed.

Once crumbling due to the ravages of time and years of neglect, Umerkot Qila (fort) -- as it is locally known -- is currently in a relatively presentable state following its restoration by the heritage authorities that began in 2016.

A newly repaired wide staircase made of burnt red bricks leads to a high platform overlooking the Umerkot city.

The platform is dotted with seven discarded brass canons in a circle with a green and white Pakistani flag fluttering in the middle.

The site was also used for executions by the British army following the capture of Sindh in 1843.

The fortification wall, as high as 45 feet, is made of burnt bricks.

The fort houses a jail, guest house, and museum.

Surrounded by heaps of broken bricks, the jail and guest house, constructed during the British colonial era, are currently in ruins.

But the museum is well-maintained and has long been the central attraction for visitors.
It contains ancient manuscripts, coins, paintings, specimens of calligraphy, royal documents, jewelry, Mughal-era arms, and Jain and Hindu sculptures that shed light on different periods of history.

“No doubt, there has been some improvement in the otherwise crumbling condition of this historic fort during the past few years," said Noor Ahmed Janjhi, who often writes on the history and architecture.

He noted that much more is needed, however, to restore the fort to its original state, including the removal of illegal settlements.

A part of the museum has been dedicated to depicting the popular Sindhi folktale Umar Marvi about Marvi Maraich, a girl from Thar who resists the overtures of the powerful Soomro King Umar and the temptation to live in his palace as a queen, preferring to be in a simple rural environment with her own village folk.

Inside a large room, life-size statues of Marvi, Umar, and his maidservant are erected.

Attired in a swanky gown and sporting a turban, Umar is shown asking Marvi for her hand as his maidservant is seen holding jewelry in a piece of cloth. The jewelry is meant for Marvi, who, however, sitting on the floor, is rejecting the king's proposal with a somber face.

Umerkot is one of two Pakistani cities where Hindus make up nearly half of the local population.

Both Hindus and Muslims have conflicting claims to Umerkot or Amarkot fort and the city itself.

According to one account, the city and the fort were constructed by Maharaja Amar Singh, who came to power in the middle of the 13th century. Some historians say the fort was built by King Umar, the founder of the Soomro dynasty, in the middle of the 11th century.

The fort was later held by different rulers until 1843, when the British army captured Sindh. After the partition of India in 1947, the fort was taken over by the Pakistani government.

No matter who built the fort, visitors recall the tale of Marvi, who was incarcerated in the fort for refusing the king's proposal.

Often referred to as "Marvi of Malir" (prosperous and green in the Thari language), Marvi was immortalized by Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, a mystic Sufi saint and poet, in his celebrated poetic compendium Shah Jo Risalo, depicting her as a symbol of courage and patriotism.

Shah Latif also named one of the seven musical notes he invented after Marvi, commonly known as "Sur Marvi."

Marvi later returned to her home village, Bhalwa, untouched.

The Akbar monument, a modern brick-built small-domed pavilion situated on a small piece of land on the eastern outskirt of Umerkot, is erected to honor the Mughal emperor who ruled India for 49 years.

Encompassed by vegetation, which is the result of recent rains on the one side and Neem and Sidr trees on the other, the doorless pavilion is built with baked red bricks. The dome is slightly fading due to sunshine and rains.

According to a plaque outside the monument, Akbar was born at this place, which was once a part of the thick forest.

Supporting the contention, Janjhi, who has authored the book Tharparkar: Land of Colour, Contrast and Culture, said Akbar was born at this site, which at that time was part of the ancient Umerkot fort.

The existing structure of the fort, he said, is the result of an expansion by the Kalhoro dynasty in the 18th century.

A couple of stone benches have been set up under the tall Neem trees in a small lawn located next to the monument, allowing visitors to take a rest in the midday broiling sun.

Standing in the middle of a sprawling green swathe, the monument is as simple as many others. But it reminds visitors about one of the most illustrious rulers of the Mughal dynasty, also known as Akbar the Great.

"Umerkot and the Mughal dynasty had had an inseparable connection. It was Umerkot that actually saved the long-running dynasty. Otherwise, it would have been restricted to Humayun only," Janjhi said.

"It was Umerkot that had provided refuge and opportunity to Humayun to recapture his lost empire," he went on to argue, adding that Humayun had first sought refuge from the ruler of the Jodhpur state, which was rejected.

 

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Archaeological evidence from 2000 year old Debal or Bhambore city, Pakistan revealed that it was a major harbour-town & market & made luxury goods for exports through sea & land routes. Experts also found agricultural bases served by irrigation canals & barrages outside the city.

Ships with masts were used during 5000 years old Indus Civilisation city of Harappa in Pakistan. Scylax of Caryanda carried out reconnaissance using ships on Indus around 500 BC. Nearchus led Greek flotilla along Indus in 325 BC. Mughal era ships traded from Lahore-Multan-Thatta.

Some of the ancient capitals of Sindh Province of Pakistan as mentioned in "The Land of the Five Rivers and Sindh" by David Ross (1883):

Aror, or Alor, near the present town of Rohri
Multan Mansura
Thatta
Sehwan (earlier Samanager)
Shikarpur
Hyderabad
Mirpur
Khairpur