BATTLE REPORT - CANNAE 216 BC -HANNIBAL IN ITALY

[Nilgiri]

Original PDF Author: Austerlitz
Original link: https://pdf.defence.pk/threads/batt...hannibal-in-italy-re-done.415114/post-8028978
Original date posted: Dec 26, 2015

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CANNAE 216 BC -HANNIBAL IN ITALY

BACKGROUND :

The First Punic War -
As Alexander's successors and their dynasties intermittently fought amongst themselves in the eastern mediterranean,the western mediterranean was dominated by the maritime empire of Carthage - originially a phoenician colony in modern day Tunisia in North africa.Carthage had dominated the western mediterranean with her great wealth(trade and grain) until she was challenged by the rising power of the Roman Republic in Italy.Over the preceeding centuries Rome has unified italy under her control,showing her early potential by repulsing the Invasion of Pyrrhus of Epirus -the greatest Hellenistic warlord of his day.The conflict begins over sicily - the central trading node of the mediterranean and a bread basket,the region where Roman and Carthaginian spheres of influence overlapped.The resulting 23 year war is one of the most devastating in antiquity with nearly 400,000 military deaths on both sides and ends in the defeat of Carthage and the loss of sicily.

In Sicily,the Carthaginian general Hamilcar had fought a lone battle for carthage remaining undefeated and earning the nickname 'Barca'(lightning) for the speed of his movements.Abandoned by the senate he returned to carthage after the war to crush the rebellion of unpaid mercenaries and peasants in Africa who had nearly besieged Cartahge itself.Rome meanwhile had added insult to injury by seizing sardinia and corsica and imposing a further indemnity on carthage when it protested.This kick in the back in Carthage's moment of weakness would not be forgotten or forgiven by the Barcids,who swore revenge.Eager to get the powerful general out of carthage the carthiginian politicians send him to spain to consolidate their holdings there.

(Hamilcar Barca)

Meanwhile,the new superpower of the mediterranean - Rome believes she is invincible.And there is solid ground for such confidence,having united all italy(one of the most populous and prosperous regions of the entire world at that time)she possesed the largest strategic manpower base in the world by far.Combined with its conscription policy and irrestible legions meant Rome had no peer on land.On sea,the romans had seized primacy from carthage after the 1st punic war and now controlled the western mediterranean.As Rome revels in her strength,hamilcar before leaving for iberia(spain)takes his 9 yr old son Hannibal deep into the temple of carthage,and on a blood sacrifice asks him to swear that as long as he lived he would be an Enemy of Rome.He would keep his word.

Carthage Recovers -
Hamilcar marched his veteran army to Iberia where Carthage already had a small foothold. Iberia (Spanish peninsula),a land whose variety of natural resources would fill its coffers with sorely needed revenue and replace the riches of Sicily that, following the end of the First Punic War, were now flowing into Roman hands. In addition, it was the ambition of the Barcas to some day employ the Iberian peninsula as a base of operations for waging a war of revenge against the Romans.Hamilcar rapidly expanded the Carthaginian coastal enclave in Spain into a continental empire,the gold and silver from spanish mines repleneshing carthaginian strength.However he is killed in an ambush and succeeded by his son-in-law Hasdrubal the Handsome.Hasdrubal consolidates Hamilcar's conquests with diplomacy as much as war -a steady trickle of gold and silver to Carthage keeping the politicians at home pacified and leaving him largely independent.Expansion of Carthaginian power in spain concerns the romans,but they are busy dealing with a gallic invasion and make a deal with Hasdrubal where south of the Ebro river would be Carthage's sphere of influence..but north of it he wouldn't move.At hasdrubal's assasination,the army unanimously proclaims Hannibal,now 26 as their commander.


''The old veterans thought Hamilcar restored to them.The same piercing eyes,the same determined expression and the same cast of features'' - Historian Livy

(Hannibal in his youth on the coin,and at a later age in marble bust)

 

[Nilgiri]

HANNIBAL IN SPAIN :

Hannibal spent the first two years of his command seeking to complete his father's ambition while simultaneously putting down several potential revolts that resulted in part from the death of Hasdrubal, which menaced the Carthaginian possessions already conquered thus far.Hannibal's first campaign was directed
against the Olcades, a Celtic Spanish tribe whose lands lay to the south of the Ebro. After routing the Olcade levies,Hannibal stormed and sacked Carteia, their capital. The weaker neighboring tribes quickly submitted, and the Carthaginian army returned to winter quarters laden with booty.In 220 BC Hannibal set his sights on the Vaccaei and Carpetani the only major tribes south of the Ebro that had not yet bowed to Carthage. These were also Celtic tribes that had settled in Spain He probably led no more than 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse,
considering the large kingdom that had to be garrisoned.Hannibal attacked and sacked the Vaccaei capital Arbacola headed back to New Carthage to regroup before moving against the Carpetani.It had become clear that all the Spanish tribes would be sequentially subjugated by Hannibal if each tribe acted alone. So the Carpetani made common cause with the Olcade, Vaccaei and neighboring lessor tribes to march against Hannibal.

Battle of Tagus River -
While still north of the Tagus, Hannibal's scouts brought word that a large tribal army was in pursuit twice his size. Hannibal was in a precarious position. If he abandoned his booty, his fast moving army could easily leave the barbarian host behind. But a mercenary army fought for its booty, and any delay in the conquest of Spain would affect his long-term plans for war with Rome. Yet, to accept battle in the open field with a force nearly double his in size would be extremely risky.Hannibal took a manuever out of Hamilcar's book.His army raced south, in apparent fear. The Spanish pursued eagerly.Hannibal crossed the Tagus River in great haste, further baiting the tribesmen.Covered by a screen of skirmishers,the Carthaginian army moved in four columns. On his flanks, Hannibal placed his elephants in the van, followed by the cavalry. In the center he formed two columns, first the light infantry, then the medium and finally the phalanx. Therefore the slowest troops were nearest the river, the quickest were farthest away. The Spanish tribal forces streamed on in pursuit. However, once across the river, Hannibal's army executed a retrograde wheeling movement that brought the African phalanx, auxiliaries, cavalry and elephants back to the riverbank even as the rebels were wading across. The Punic cavalry charged first, cutting down thousands of rebels struggling up the bank through mud and slime. Here the elephants proved invaluable, crushing Spanish warriors scrambling up the bank with their massive feet. Hannibal's Spanish auxiliaries showered the enemy with javelins. When the rebel assault was completely halted and thrown into confusion, Hannibal ordered his phalanx to re-cross the river and finish them off. Hannibal had converted a danegerous situation into a dramatic victory.Hannibal followed up his victory by pursuing the Carpetani into their homeland,completing the subjugation of all tribes south of the Ebro.

Sack of Saguntum -
Saguntum,the only remaining major city south of the ebro not under carthage's aegis had allied itself with rome and Rome sent a delegation to Hannibal to warn him against any attack.In the past after the first punic war Carthage had always capitulated to roman demands,to the Romans surprise Hannibal attacked Saguntum and sacked the city after a 8-month siege.Rome demanded the carthaginian assembly hand Hannibal over ,but this was refused.It would be war.The Second Punic War had begun.

HANNIBAL'S STRATEGY :

Hannibal had no intention to sit and recieve the romans in spain.Hannibal clearly considered the nature of roman power-and came to the conclusion that Rome could only be defeated in Italy.The cornerstone of Rome's power was a strategic manpower base that in theory could produce 7,00,000 infantry and 70,000 cavalry.More than half of this manpower base (4,00,000) was provided by rome's Italian allies,who paid no taxes but had to render military service to rome's armies.Not all were content.Carthage on the other hand rarely used its own citizens for war,bulk of its army being mercenaries.In any case its manpower could never even come close to Rome,the fact that had aided roman victory in the 1st Punic war.Hannibal thus understood that Rome could afford to raise and send army after army to spain and take losses. Meanwhile any carthiginian losses in spain would encourage the recently conquered iberian tribes to defect.
The only way to defeat Rome,was to fight in italy itself.By winning battle after battle on italian soil and demonstrating to the italian allies rome's inability to protect them and weakness,he could encourage them to break free of Rome eroding Rome's manpower to sizeable proportions.

But there was one problem,his fleet was tiny and Rome ruled the seas.By land,the coastal route would be blocked by Roman forces and her ally-the great walled city of massalia.Hannibal thus resolved to think and do the impossible - move thousands of miles by land through the pyranees mountains,uncharted territory inhabited by the fierce gauls ,then through the Alps mountains and invade italy.

(Beginning of the Second Punic War)

Hannibal's preparations -
Even before the siege of Saguntum had concluded,Hannibal had set things in motion.Having sent a number of embassies to the Gallic tribes in the Po valley with the mission of establishing a safe place for Hannibal to debouch from the Alps into the Po valley. He did not desire to cross this rugged mountain chain and to descend into the Po valley with exhausted troops only to have to fight a battle.Additionally the fierce gauls would provide a source of manpower for Hannibal's army.The romans had recently conquered much territory from the gauls in this area,brutally subjagating them ,seizing their land and redistributing it to roman colonists.Thus securing an alliance proved to be easy.

After the sack of Saguntum he dismissed his troops to their own localities. He did this with the hope of cultivating the best possible morale in his army for the upcoming campaign, which he knew was going to be difficult. He left his brother,Hasdrubal in charge of the administration of Carthaginian Iberia, as well as its defense against the Romans. In addition to this, he swapped the native troops of Iberia to Africa, and the native troops of Africa to Iberia. This was done in order to minimize desertion and assure the loyalty of the troops while he was himself busy with the assault on Rome.

Roman Preparations -
Leaving aside its garrisons,in 218 BC the Roman Senate mobilized a first wave of 64,000 infantry and 6,200 cavalry for a planned 2-front assault on Carthage.
>One force of 8,000 roman infantry(2 legions) plus 14,000 Italian allied infantry and 2200 cavalry were sent under Consul Publius scipio the elder to invade Spain
>A Second army under Consul Sempronius Longus of 2 roman legions(8000 foot and 600 horse),plus 16,000 allied infantry and 1800 cavalry in sicily was to invade Carthage in North Africa.
>A Third army 2 additional roman legions,plus 10,000 allied infantry and 1,000 cavalry was sent to north italy to keep the gauls under the heel.And this was just the tip of the iceberg as far as roman manpower was concerned.

HANNIBAL'S EPIC MARCH :

Hannibal mobilized his Polygot Multiethnic armies at New Carthage for his War of Retribution.
He dispatched 15,000 spanish infantry and 1200 cavalry to reinforce Carthage in Africa.
He left behind Hasdrubal with 13,000 infantry and 2500 cavalry in Spain to defend against a roman attack.
He then began his epic march from Carthago Nova(New Carthage) with over 75,000 men .

Lightning Campaign In Catalonia -
Hannibal foresaw problems if he left Catalonia as a bridgehead for the Romans. They had a number of allies in this country, and he could not allow the Romans a place to land in his base unopposed. As he was relying upon contingents of forces coming to him in Italy via the land route he was about to head out upon, he must take and conquer this country. He had no intention of leaving Iberia to its fate once he was in Italy. Hannibal opted to take the region in a swift campaign, and to that effect he divided his army into three columns, in order to subdue the entirety of the region at the same time.
The principal column was the right column, and with it was the treasure chest, the cavalry, with baggage, all the other necessities of war and Hannibal himself. This was the critical column. As long as Hannibal had no ships to keep himself abreast of the exact movements of the Romans, he wanted to be present in person in case the Romans should make a landing in an attempt to attack his army on its ascent or descent through the Pyrenees. This column crossed the Ebro at the town of Edeba, and proceeded directly along the coast through Tarraco, Barcino(later Barcelona), Gerunda, Emporiae and Illiberis.Each of those were taken and garrisoned in turn.

The second, or central, column crossed the Ebro proceeded through a number of valleys in this country, and had orders to subdue any tribes that resisted its advance. It eventually rejoined the principal column when it had completed its task.

The third, or left, column crossed the Ebro where it touches with the Sicoris River and proceeded along the river valley and into the mountain countries. It performed the same task as the second and the first columns did. When planning each of these marches, Hannibal ensured that the Rubracatus river was athwart each of the columns' paths, so if any of the columns should be placed in a disadvantageous situation the other columns could march up and down the river in support of each other should one be placed in a perilous position.The campaign was conducted over the course of two months,Hannibal lost 13,000 men.

Hannibal garrisoned the region with 10,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry under his brother Hanno.He further let go another 10,000 spaniards who were reluctant to leave thir homeland.Hannibal reportedly entered Gaul with 50.00 foot soldiers and 9,000 horsemen.

NEXT : HANNIBAL'S EPIC MARCH ACROSS THE ALPS

 

[Nilgiri]

MARCH ACROSS THE ALPS

''We will either find a way or make one'' - Hannibal

FROM PYRANEES TO THE ALPS :

From the Pyranees to the Rhone river the march was somehwat inconspicous .Despite hostility of the gallic tribes,by gifts of gold mostly the carthiginians were allowed to pass.On arriving at the rhone hannibal's army numbered 38,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry and 37 elephants ,rest having been let go or left behind to protect Lines of Communication.

Battle at the Rhone River -
While Rome had been idle and leaving her allies in Catalonia to their fate at the hands of the Carthiginians, the Massilians, the Allies of the Romans, were busy rousing the tribes on the left (eastern) bank of the Rhone against the Carthaginians . Massilia (modern Marseille), a successful Greek trade emporium had for some time been under the influence of the Romans, and the Romans had even settled colonists there. Massilia feared the arriving Carthaginian army and aroused the local celts against them.Awaiting the Carthaginian army on the left bank of the Rhone was the Volcae tribesmen This tribe had fortified a camp on the far side of the river, and was awaiting Hannibal's army to cross,so as to attack them as they crossed.Hannibal was well read about Alexander's crossing of the Jhelum at the battle of Hydaspes and employed a similar tactic.Hannibal ordered his men to purchase all available canoes and craft from the Celts living on the west bank, and set about constructing even more boats.

On the third night after reaching the river, he secretly dispatched a detachment of his army, under the command of
Hanno, led by native guides on a 25-mile forced march upriver to a suitable crossing point. Gathering a few boats, the column rapidly crossed the river. Many of the Iberians swam across, assisted by inflating the leather bags in which they carried their gear: Hanno pitched a camp on the far shor'e and allowed his men a day of rest.Meanwhile. Hannibal openly prepared his army for an assault river crossing, fixing the attention of the Volcae Celts. On the morning of the fifth day, he observed the prearranged smoke signal he had been awaiting from Hanno and sent his men into the water. The largest boats were stationed upstream, to break the force of the current The cavalry horses swam behind the boats, troopers in the stern of each craft holding their reins. Infantry crossed in canoes and other small craft.Even with the large number of boats Hannibal had collected, only a fraction of his army could cross in the first wave. As the armada surged toward the opposite shore, the Volcae swarmed out of their camp to occupy the beach. Just then Hanno's detachment stormed into the rear of the Volcae host while a few of his units set fire to the Volcae camp.Some of the Celts rushed to the defense of their camp, but the majority remained at the location where they had been awaiting the arrival of what they had thought was all of Hannibal's army. Hannibal, who was on one of the first boats, landed his men on the left bank of the Rhone amidst the dazed and confused enemy and attacked ,surrounded on 2 sides pandemonium took control of the volcae ranks and they fled.

Rhone posed special problems for the Carthaginians elephants. The animals refused to board boats or small rafts for thecrossing. Hannibal directed his pioneers to construct a number of large rafts. 25 feet square. These were lashed together in pairs, and eight pairs were attached to the bank, lorming a pier 50 feet wide and extending 200 feet into the river. Two additional rafts were attached to this pier and connected with towlines to boats. The rest of the elephants had refused to venture onto boats in the riiver, so the pier was disguised as dry land, covered with dirt. The elephants were led by two compliant females across the pier and onto the raft. Then the rafts were cut free and towed across the river. The elephants panicked at first but eventually crowded toward the center of the raft and made the crossing safely. The process was repeated a number of times, and though a few of the frightened elephants fell into the water, even they managed to swim across.

Encounter with the Romans :
Publius Scipio was delayed by an attempted gallic uprising,then recieved alarming news that hannibal had crossed the pyranees and was advancing on italy! He sailed to the great coastal allied city of massila with a force of 25,000 intent on using it as a secure base to halt the carthaginian advance along the coast.
On reaching massila he was shocked to hear that hannibal was only a few days away.He sent a recon force,which surprised a detatchment of carthiginian cavalry.Hannibal now knew the romans had arrived.However he didn't give battle as he had to get across the alps before winter ,the coastal road was blocked by massila and a frontal assault against superior roman forces would be suicidal.By the time scipio came to attack the carthiginian camp hannibal had slipped away .Scipio sent most of his force onto spain and hurried towards north italy to gather the troops there,in case some of hannibal's troops survived the alps.

(The coastal road and the white line denoting hannibal's most possible route)

CROSSING THE ALPS :

Battle at Mt.Du Chat Pass -
From the Rhone the carthiginians reached the foot of the alps in mid-october.Here they were opposed by the Allobroges celts who held the higher ground that led to trail into the mountains.Hannibal's spies found that the tribals only maintained their position at the camp during the day, and left their fortified position at night. In order to make the Allobroges believe that he did not deem a night assault prudent, he ordered that as many camp-fires be lit as possible, in order to induce them into believing that he was settling down before their encampment along the mountains. However, once they left their fortifications, he led his best troops up to their fortifications and seized control of the pass.Hiding his men in the mountain brush on a cliff that arose immediately above and to the right off Hannibal's route of march, about 100 feet or so above the path, Hannibal stationed his slingers and archers there. This overhang was an excellent place from which to attack an enemy while it was marching in column through the pass.The descent from this pass was steep, and the Carthaginians were having a hard time marching down this side of the pass,especially the baggage animals. The Allobroges, seeing this, attacked anyway, in spite of their disadvantageous position. More baggage animals were lost in the confusion of the attack, and they rolled off of the precipices to their deaths.This put Hannibal in a difficult situation. However, Hannibal, at the head of the same elite corps that he led to take the overhang, led them against these determined foes. Virtually all of these celts died in the ensuing combat, as they were fighting with their backs to a steep precipice, trying to throw their arrows and darts uphill at the advancing Carthaginians.

 

[Nilgiri]

Ambush at Little St.Bernard Pass -
The Carthaginians were able to march on unmolested for the next three days. Then the elders of another mountain tribe came out to meet Hannibal with gifts and promises of aid. The general remained suspicious, but some of his fears were allayed whenthe Celts provided him food, hostages and guides to lead them through the next portion of the mountains.At first all seemed well, bul the treacherous guides led the Carthaginians into a steep ravine where their warriors waited in ambush. Hannibal, having foreseen that possibilily, had placed all his cavalry and baggage at the head of the column, while his inlantry brought up the rear: When the ambush was sprung, the cavalry and baggage column got through with few losses. The infantry had some hard fighting, but it was the terrain itself, and the bouldersrolled down from above, that resulted in lhemost casualties. Hannibal eventually brought his army through the ambush.This proved to be the last major' attack the Carthaginians faced, as the higher mourntains were sparsely populated.

Descent from the Alps -
From here on nature became the enemy.Snow began to fall heavily and the africans and spaniards used to sunny weather suffered grieviously.On the 9th day the carthiginians reached the summit of the mountain.Then the downhill journey began,slopes were steeper and fresh snow made extremely treacherous footing.Many fell and died,others were too tired to ever rise again.To compound problems a landslide had blocked the route and no detour could be discovered.Again with ingenuity,the great boulder was heated with bonfires then soaked in wine and vinegar to crack it open.After days of labour to widen the path,hannibal's army went through.
After 140 miles through the alps,5 Months after leaving spain and a 1000 mile journey later-Hannibal's survivors could finally see the lush valleys of Italy as they emerged from the Alps,late october.Hannibal and his army had accomplished the unthinkable.

(Great video to get the feel)

NEXT : OPPOSING ARMIES

 

[Nilgiri]

THE ROMAN WAR MACHINE

EVOLUTION OF THE ROMAN MILITARY UPTO THE PUNIC WARS :

The wars fought by early Rome consisted of small-scale raids.The 'armies' were warrior bands formed by an aristocrat, his kin and dependants. The leaders were not commanders with formal powers but heroes who led by personal example, fighting as conspicuously as possible in advance of their followers in Homeric fashion. The leader fought for personal glory, the followers out of loyalty to the leader who provided for them.A major development came with the adoption of the hoplite phalanx, probably some time in the sixth century. Hoplite warfare developed in early seventh-century Greece and spread to Italy via the Greek colonies of the southern peninsula.The phalanx warfare of the hopliites changed the individualistic nature of italic combat and also led to the formation of city-states.Hoplites were drawn from those able to afford the necessary equipment, and as cities developed and prospered this came to include a much higher proportion of the population, consisting primarily of farmers. Such men were expected to fight harder for the state, since as men of property they had an interest in its preservation. They gained increased political power within the city, earning these rights through their obligation to fight to protect the community.This was the ideal of the citizen soldier, the man who fought not for pay, booty or glory, but out of civic duty.The first roman military reforms came under King Servius Tullius in the 6th century to this effect.

Above - The warband army to the left and the reformed Serviian army to the right.The Servian constitution divided the population into classes based on an assessment of their property, each class providing itself with a specified set of equipment - a full hoplite panoply for Class I, to just a sling for Class V.At this time Rome was still ruled by kings.

The Republic and the Manipular Legion -
With the expulsion of the Kings and the rise of the Republic,roman power grew slowly but methodically,even as the city itself was growing in size.The great shock to Rome came in 390 BC when a Gallic invading army routed the Roman army on the banks of the River Allia outside Rome.The Gauls sacked Rome, forcing the few defenders of the
Capitol to buy their safety with a colossal bribe of gold.This event engraved in Rome's collective memory the long-lasting hatred for the northern gauls and proved the vulnerabilities of the solid phalanx if flanked or penetrated at any point.Either the aftermath of this humiliation or the long struggle with the Samnite Confederation(343 BC -290 BC),the roman's greatest enemies in italy served as the catalysts to the formation of the manipular legion(described in detail later).The phalanx was extremely vulnerable in the mountanous terrain of Samnium and the romans suffered several embrassments -with their army surrendering and having to pass under yoke in 321 bc,and then having to accept a peace on unfavourable terms.It would be the last time the Romans would do so.The Manipular Reforms are attributed to Camillius ,though its doubtful that it was an overnight process.Camillius however did introduce some important changes - introduction of a daily cash allowance for soldiers; the adoption of the rectangular scutum shield instead of the round hoplite clipeus, while the pilum throwing-spear/heavy javelin replaced the hasta spear.

(3-line system and posterior cenury lining up alongside prior one,just before contact)

The legion was essentially a development of the phalanx. The Romans articulated the single block into three lines, triplex acies, with each line in turn broken up into small blocks capable of independent manoeuvre, with enoughspace between the soldiers to allow them to use their weapons effectively deployed in checkerboard formation. By the time of Hannibal most soldiers were armed with pilum and gladius, but the third line retained the longer hasta. These blocks of 120 men (manipuli) were each madeup of two centuriae (centuries of 60 men each,10 ranks 6 deep during this period), the administrative sub-units of the legion, but the manipulus was the basic tactical unit in the Roman battle line. It was under the command of the centurio prior, the senior of the two centurions, who could be replaced at need by the junior, the centurio posterior.The Romans thus sacrificed the depth and cohesion of the phalanx for mobility and flexibility. They sent the three lines of maniples into the attack in turn, the legionaries of the first two casting their pila and running to meet the enemy head-on with their scuta and gladii. In their combined use of pilum and gladius the Romans had partly solved the age-old dilemma of choosing between missile- and shock-attack.The new manipular system showed its power in the defeat of the samnites,then in repulsing pyyrhus's invasion and against the gauls of north italy and the mercenaries of Carthage in the first punic war.

''The Romans are like the Lernaean Hydra to fight against'' -Cineas,Advisor of Pyyrhus
NATURE OF THE ROMAN WAR MACHINE :

Inexhaustible Manpower -
It was during this era that the romans began to grow into a truly formidable war-making entity.Alongside the new manipular system Roman success also owed to its succesful alliance system.Romans showed a willingness to absorb outsiders into the community, an attitude quite unlike that of most Greek city states who were highly jealous of the privileges of citizenship. Slaves, most of whom at this period were warcaptives, received full citizen rights when they gained their freedom. Some entire Latin communities were absorbed into the citizen body, while others received more limited rights of commerce with Roman citizens without gaining the full franchise. This produced a steady increase in the available citizen manpower and fostered military success. Defeated enemy communities were turned into allies who provided troops to serve Rome in future campaigns. In some cases conquered territory was settled with colonies.Uniquely Roman allies paid no tribute,but had to send soldiers to serve in Rome's wars for which they recieved a share of the spoils.The roman elite also established strong commercial and even matrimonial relations with the upper classes of other italian cities in a sort of mutually beneficial patron-client relationship.The romans cemented these bonds by building a network of highways throughout Italy and giving the allies complete internal autonomy.These factors,combined with the roman lure of citizenship meant that while her allies were not equal partners,they were not unwilling ones entirely.It was this reason that would ultimately save the Romans,and lead to Hannibal's failure.

The steady growth in Rome's military manpower gave her great advantages over other peoples, so that a sizeable field army needed to consist of only a proportion of the available citizen manpower. Such an army could afford to stayin the field for a longer period without this causing catastrophic damage to the community's economy and bringing on famine,and also afford huge losses and fight on.From 311 BC there were normally four legions raised in each year, so that the standard consular army consisted of two legions.By the time of Hannibal Rome had command theoritically over a strategic manpower reserve of 700,000 infantry and 70,000 cavalry(adult males possible for recruitment).It was the greatest ready military manpower reserve in the ancient world.(Population might be greater in other empires,but their populations were not regularly conscripted and trained as militia on a yearly basis)

(Maniple of 120 men if century of 60 men,160 if century of 80 men)

 

[Nilgiri]

Recruitment ,Discipline,Motivation -
Roman army was based on the principle of personal service by the citizens defending their state. It was not yet a professional army.All citizens between 17 and 46 years of age who satisfied the property criteria were required by the Senate to attend a selection process - The Dilectus.Citizens were liable for 16 years' service as a legionary.A man was normally expected to serve up to six years in a continuous posting, after which he would be released from his military oath. Thereafter he was liable for enlistment, as an evocatus, up to the maximum of 16 campaigns or years. Some men might serve for a single year at a time, and be obliged to come forward again at the next dilectus, until their full six-year period was completed.Thus the romans always had a pool of trained manpower available.

At the dilectus, height and age arranged the citizens into some semblance of soldierly order. They were then brought forward four at a time to be selected for service in one of the four consular legions being raised that year. The military tribunes of each legion took it in turns to have first choice, thus ensuring an even distribution of experience and quality throughout the four units. They then ordered the soldiers to take a formal oath,while enrolled in the army, citizens werepaid and fed by the state and agreed to subject themselves to a draconian system of discipline,bound by oath.If a whole unit disgraced itself in battle it was liable to decimation, the execution of one man in ten.The army's discipline was reflected in one of its most famous practices, the construction of a marching camp at the end of each day's march.It is said that Pyrrhus first realized that he was not facing mere barbarians when he saw a Roman army camped for the night.The soldiers were drawn from the same citizen body that elected the army's commanders and there existed a strong sense of shared duty amongst the soldiers( much different from the warlordism of the empire days).At the end of a campaign, or after a great battle, a parade was held by the army at which the individuals who had displayed conspicuous gallantry were decorated and acclaimed by their comrades which served as further motivation.Such honours could do much advance one's political career.

'No people are more willing to adopt new customs and to emulate what they see is better done' - Polybius on Romans

Training -
The Romans obviously attached a great deal of importance to training, and it is this that largely explains the formidable success of their militia army.They also took great pride in their ability to learn from their enemies too, copying war gear and tactics from successive opponents and often improving upon them. The scutum and pilum was copied from their samnite opponents and improved .The Gladius from Carthage's Iberian mercenaries in the first punic war,also improved.The Gallic helmet was later adopted.As were greek siege machines,again improved.Rome's navy was created by reverse engineering captured carthaginian vessels and improving them.

'' They made round wickerwork shields, twice the weight that a government shield normally was. They also gave the recruits wooden swords, likewise of double weight, instead of real swords. So equipped, they were trained not only in the morning but even after noon against posts. Indeed, the use of posts is of very great benefit to gladiators as well as soldiers.... Each recruit would plant a single post in the ground so that it could not move and protruded six [Roman] feet [i.e. 1.8m]. Against the post as if against an adversary the recruit trained himself using the wickerwork shield and wooden sword, just as if he were fighting a real enemy. Sometimes he aimed as against head and face, sometimes he threatened the flanks, and sometimes he tried to cut the hamstrings and legs. He gave ground, came on, sprang, and aimed at the post with every method of attack and art of combat, as though it were an actual opponent. In this training care was taken that the recruit drew himself up to inflict wounds without exposing any part of himself to a blow.

Further, they learned to strike not with the edge, but with the point. For the Romans not only easily beat those fighting with the edge, but also ridicule them, as a slash-cut, whatever its force, seldom kills, because both armour and bones protect the vitals. But a thrust driven two inches in is fatal; for necessarily whatever goes in penetrates the vitals. Secondly, while a slash-cut is being delivered, the right arm and flank are exposed; whereas a thrust is inflicted with the body remaining covered, and the enemy is wounded before he realizes it.... The wickerwork shield and wooden sword of double weight they gave out so that when the recruit took up real and lighter arms, he fought with more confidence and agility, as being liberated from the heavier weight.'' - Roman historian Vegetius.

Sword drill of this kind was alternated with running, jumping, swimming and the felling of trees. Additionally, three times a month, there were long route marches where the pace was varied from the normal marching rate to a rapid trot . Once the recruit, now bulked out with muscle and bursting with stamina, had attained a proper proficiency with the dummy weapons, he would begin training with the real thing. Formal training culminated in individual combat, with each recruit being assigned another as adversary.

(Principe,Hastati,Velite)
Despite this overall apparent awe-inspiring power the romans of this period did have some flaws.The very conscription laws that made these enormous armies possible also meant that legions were not yet,full time professionals of the Caesarean or Empire era.They were however still drilled and disciplined.Another flaw was the Senior leadership,roman low level leadership of centurions was excellent-But higher up armies were led by consuls.Elected magistrates who were politician cum generals-not full-time military men.On the other hand,the carthiginians while didn't make up any significant part of their armies with citizens-retained all command positions for mercenary armies to native carthiginians.The carthiginian senior leadership were mostly professionals.Finally the roman cavalry was mediocre and was a somewhat neglected arm.In the days before the stirrup,only very disciplined cavalry could go head on with heavy infantry.Roman battle tactics during this period was also relatively straight forward and predictable with a frontal assault on he enemy line and crush it with the brute force of the legions.Overall these limitations were more than made up by her enormous manpower and the finest tactical battle system in the world in the manipular legion which would soon eclipse the macedonian phalanx.When the Second Punic war began,the Romans may not have been at their all-time historical peak but the Republic was already a superpower - the Roman steamroller had begun to roll in earnest.

NEXT : ROMAN ORGANIZATION AND TACTICS

 

[Nilgiri]

THE ROMAN ARMY - PART II

THE ORGANIZATION AND TACTICS OF A ROMAN LEGION :

The hastati contained the younger men and also the relatively poorer.Their usual position was the first battle line.Usually wore light armour.Principes were men in the prime of their lives who were fairly wealthy, and could afford decent equipment. They were the heavier infantry of the legion of the 2nd line who carried large shields and wore good quality armour.Both fought as swordsmen after casting their pilum javelins.The Triarii were the oldest and among the wealthiest men in the army, and could afford high quality equipment. They wore heavy metal armor and carried large shields, their usual position being the third battle line. They were equipped with spears and fought in the old phalanx style.

The Manipular legion was typically composed of 10 maniples of Hastati,10 maniples of Principe and 10 maniples of triarii.The Hastati and Principe maniples consisted of 2 centuries - 60 men each for 120 men total per maniple.The Triarii had only one century per maniple.The typical legion thus would have 1200 hastati,1200 principe and 600 triarii.3000 heavy infantry supported by 1000 velite light infantry for a total strength of 4000 men approximately.Each legion was also supported by a cavalry detatchment of 300 men -150 cavalry on each flank.

From the late republican era centuries came to be of 80 men.The maniple was replaced by the heavier cohort (480 men or 4 maniples together).The cohort was composed of six 80-men centuries in checkerboard formation.However these changes would only take place from the end of the 2nd punic war.

The legions were officered by six military tribunes -elected magistrates with prior military experience.
There was an optio behind each century to hold the men in place, and a centurion in the front rank to urge them onwards.A centurion was supposed to be selected for his determination and skill as a leader rather than prowess in individual fighting, and stubbornness was especially important - they formed the basic sinew that held the army together .

BATTLE TACTICS - INITIAL MOVEMENTS & DEPLOYMENT

The Approach march. Once the legion was deployed on an operation, the marching began. The approach to the battlefield was made in several columns, enhancing maneuverability. Typically a strong vanguard preceded the main body, and included scouts, cavalry and light troops. A tribune or other officer often accompanied the vanguard to survey the terrain for possible camp locations. Flank and reconnaissance elements were also deployed to provide the usual covering security. Behind the vanguard came the main body of heavy infantry. Each legion marched as a distinct formation and was accompanied by its own baggage train. The last legion usually provided the rear force, although several recently raised units might occupy this final echelon.

Construction of fortified camps. Legions on a campaign typically established a strong field camp, complete with Palisade and a deep ditch, providing a basis for supply storage, troop marshaling and defense. Camps were recreated each time the army moved, and were constructed with a view to both military necessity and religious symbolism. There were always four gateways, connected by two main criss-crossing streets, with the intersection at a concentration of command tents in the center.Everything was standardized, from the positioning of baggage, equipment and specific army units, to the duties of officers who were to set up sentries, pickets and orders for the next day's march. Construction could take between 2 to 5 hours with part of the army laboring, while the rest stood guard, depending on the tactical situation. The shape of the camp was generally rectangular, but could vary based on the terrain or tactical situation. A distance of about 60 meters was left clear between the entrenchments and the first row of troop tents. This gap provided space for marshaling the legionnaires for battle and kept the troop area out of enemy missile range.No other ancient army persisted over such a long period in systematic camp construction like the Romans, even if the army rested for only a single day.

After a regimented breakfast at the allocated time, trumpets were sounded and the camp's tents and huts were dismantled and preparations made for departure. The trumpet then sounded again with the signal for "stand by to march". Mules and wagons of the baggage train would be loaded and units formed up. The camp would then be burned to the ground to prevent its later occupation and use by the enemy. The Trumpets would then be sounded for a final time and then the troops asked three times whether they were ready, to which they were expected to shout together "Ready!", before marching off.

(Hastati back,Principe front left and Triarii)

During deployment in the Republican era, the maniples were commonly arranged in Triplex Acies(triple battle order): that is, in three ranks, with the Hastati in the first rank (that nearest the enemy), the Principes in the second rank, and the veteran triarii in the third and final rank asbarrier troops, or sometimes even further back as a strategic reserve. When in danger of imminent defeat, the first and second lines, the Hastati and Principes, ordinarily fell back on the Triarii to reform the line to allow for either a counter-attack or an orderly withdrawal. Because falling back on the Triarii was an act of desperation, to mention "falling on the Triarii" became a common Roman phrase indicating one to be in a desperate situation.Within this triplex acies system, contemporary Roman writers talk of the maniples adopting a checkered formation called quincux when deployed for battle but not yet engaged. In the first line, the hastati left gaps equal in size to their cross-sectional area between each maniple. The second line consisting of principes followed in a similar manner, lining up behind the gaps left by the first line. This was also done by the third line, standing behind the gaps in the second line. The velites were deployed in front of this line in a continuous, loose-formation line.

(On top the phases of roman manipular battle.Below depicts the skirmish line of velites throwing their javelins and then retreating through gaps in the line between the centuries of the hastati )

CONDUCT OF THE BATTLE :

1 and 2 .Battle would be opened by the screening velites, who attempted to disorganize and unsettle enemy formations with a scattering of missiles, each individual carrying a clutch of javelins to be thrown in very quick succession. This done, they retired through the gaps in the maniples of the hastati and made their way to the rear. The maniples of the hastati now re-formed to close the gaps the posterior century would move to the left and forward, thus running out and forming up alongside the prior century on the battle line.The first line now walked slowly forward in an eerie silence until some 15m - the effective range of a pilum - from the contact point. Immediately and without due warning the hastati then let fly their missile weapons, throwing first their light and then their heavy pila.During the confusion caused by this pila storm, which could be devastating, the hastati drew their swords and 'charged the enemy yelling their war cry and clashing their weapons against their shields as is their custom'.

3.Ideally, the Hastati fought the main enemy line to a standstill, but if they were rebuffed or lost momentum an entire second formation, the succeeding line of principes, surged forward into the combat zone, casting their pila overtheir comrades' heads in the melee, and the entire process of well-drilled butchery could begin anew with fresh troops. The hastati would fall back either by the rear centuries disengaging and opening gaps during lulls in the fighting through which the forward centuries of the principes would take up their position,or if the fighting was frenzied with no scope for such methodical manuever by filtering to the rear by individual troop rotation as will be described below.

4.If even the Principes failed to break the enemy they would similarly fall back behind the triarii and the whole army could now launch a final all-out assault led by the triarii or withdraw in good order behind the barrier of spears of the third line.

ADVANTAGES OF ACES TRIPLEX -

1. Flexibility and Manueverability - It can more easily flow around obstacles and maneuver and control is much superior.Reforming and recovery is also very much easier,as well as reacting to flank attacks.

2. Stamina and Relentless Pressure - Another unique feature of the Roman infantry was the depth of its spacing.The advantage of the Roman system is that it allowed the continual funneling or metering of combat power forward over a longer period—massive, steadily renewed pressure to the front—until the enemy broke under the relentless assault of fresh troops.This troop rotation system is one of the key advantages of the roman battle system.


"When the first line as a whole had done its best and become weakened and exhausted by losses, it gave way to the relief of fresh men from the second line who, passing through it gradually, pressed forward one by one, or in single file, and worked their way into the fight in the same way. Meanwhile the tired men of the original first line, when sufficiently rested, reformed and re-entered the fight. This continued until all men of the first and second lines had been engaged. This does not presuppose an actual withdrawal of the first line, but rather a merging, a blending or a coalescing of both lines. Thus the enemy was given no rest and was continually opposed by fresh troops until, exhausted and demoralized, he yielded to repeated attacks."

 

[Nilgiri]

ACTUAL CLOSE COMBAT :

The front ranks usually cast their pila and the following ranks hurled theirs over the heads of the front-line fighters. After the pila were cast, the soldiers then drew their swords and engaged the enemy. Emphasis was on using the shield to provide maximum body coverage, while attacking that exposed by the enemy. In the combat that ensued, Roman discipline, heavy shield, armor and training were to give them important advantages.If a battle was prolonged in ancient warfare,intense trauma and stress of hand-to-hand combat meant that the contenders did not simply hack at one another continuously until one dropped. Instead, there were short periods of intense, vicious fighting. If indecisive, the contenders might fall back a short distance to recuperate, and then surge forward to renew the struggle.In short battles which were decided by the initial charge this would not happen however.

The legionary essentially fought as an individual fighter, a swordsman within a collective system.His equipment was designed to operate as a whole.The pilum was designed to 1.Kill the enemy at range and create gaps in the enemy line which could be exploited or 2.If the enemy took the javelin on his shield it would bend and get stuck,and due to its weight force him to discard his shield and face the roman infantry without it - a decisive advantage for the roman infantryman still with his shield.

His long oval shield covered his whole body,he wore body armour and metal helmet with reinforced mail straps on the shoulders against a downward blow.Legs covered by greaves for better equipped men and hobnailed spiked boots so that they could walk forward over the enemies they kill without slipping.'According to the Roman methods of fighting each man makes his movements individually: not only does he defend his body with his long shield, constantly moving it to meet a threatened blow, but he uses his sword both for cutting and for thrusting' -Polybius.

The shield acted both as a offensive and defensive weapon.The standard drill for the legionary was to punch the enemy in the face with the metal shield boss and then jab him in the belly with the razor-sharp point of the gladius short sword.(If an enemy lacked a shield he would be near defenceless in the press of close combat against such an attack).The first picture of this post shows the sequence.


''On the other hand, the Romans' defence and counter manoeuvring against the barbarians was well practised and afforded greater safety. For while their foes were still raising their swords aloft, they would duck under their arms, holding up their shields, and then, stooping and crouching low, they would render vain and useless the blows of the others, which were aimed too high. The Romans, on the other hand, holding their swords straight out, would strike their opponents in the groin, their sides, and drive their blows through their breasts into their vitals. And if they saw any of them keeping these parts of their bodies protected, they would cut the tendons of their knees or ankles and topple them to the ground'' - Dionysiois(on roman fighting over Gallic style)

(Above is a later era imperial legionary,but basic technique of punch and thrust is clearly shown.Opponent is disbalanced with the shield punched in his face,and then gladius rips out his intestines)

Legionary battle posture -
Having drawn his gladius the legionary now adopted a very slight crouch, with the left foot forward, holding the scutum horizontally in front with the left hand and using it to cover the upper legs, the torso, and lower face. By keeping the scutum close to his body, the legionary not only gained optimum protection but also increased the range of the punch. His body would have been slightly turned in profile to his opponent in order to present as small a target as possible, with his elbows tucked close to the torso so as not to expose the vulnerable underarm. His feet were roughly a shoulder width apart. In this balanced position he could put all his body weight, which rested on the back leg, behind a punch with his scutum.Two methods could be employed -offensive or deffensive.The first necessitated striking the first blow, perhaps through overwhelming his opponent with the scutum: here its sheer size was a premium. The second method involved taking the opponent's sword strike on the scutum. This would entail moving the shield a relatively short distance to meet the incoming blow: here the metal binding on its upper edge was a premium. The advantage here was that the parry and punch could be combined, the legionary moving in closer all the while to deliver the deadly thrust.It was a simple,yet brutally efficient method.


''The order of battle used by the Roman army is very difficult to break through, since it allows every man to fight both individually and collectively; the effect is to offer a formation that can present a front in any direction, since the maniples that are nearest to the point where danger threatens wheels in order to meet it. The arms they carry both give protection and also instill great confidence into the men, because of the size of the shields and the strength of the swords, which can withstand repeated blows. All these factors make the Romans formidable antagonists in battle and very hard to overcome.'' - Polybious,greek-roman historian

Spacing -
The legionary required much more individual space to wield his shield and sword than a spearman in a phalanx.The centuries of a maniple deployed either 3-man deep when greater frontage was required or more commonly 6 man deep with 10 ranks frontage.Above is depicted the 2 centuries of a roman maniples 10 ranks wide,6-ranks deep.To its right shows the individual spacing of roman legionary.The spacing varied between 3 feet and 6ft as shown above.When 6 ft the century was in open order ,when 3ft in close order and actively engaged in close combat.This unit spacing was very necessary for the roman sword-shield warrior to be effectively able to wield his weapons and also to use troop rotation via the 'filtering' method.

Troop Rotation
The romans rotated their troops via 2 methods.Against methodical opponents who also fought in blocks like the greek phalanx ,rotation by centuries as was seen earlier in the diagram with hastati and principe interchanging places would be carried out.Against more loose but aggressive dynamic ,particularly gallic,iberian,german tribal forces the 'filtering' method was more practical as gaps created by rotation with centuries could be quickly exploited by theseindividualistic enemies.Above video shows how this troop rotation took place.The picture also shows how by using the available spacing between the individual legionaries,a legionary in the first line could step to one side opening enough gap for an individual in the second line to come forward and take his place while he then withdrew to the rear,this process could be repeated with the whole century.During the maelstrom of battle it is also possible that as the units merged into line, the general checkerboard spacing became more compressed or even disappeared, and the fighting would see a more or less solid line engaged with the enemy. Thus gaps at the beginning of the struggle might tend to vanish in the closing phases.In this case legionaries from rear lines could rotate in small groups like this.if a century was six ranks deep,every man would probably fight for 5 mins once every 30 minutes.

NEXT : TROOP TYPES AND EQUIPMENT

 

[Nilgiri]

THE ROMAN ARMY -PART III

ROMAN TROOP TYPES :

The roman army of the manipular era typically included the heavy infantry - Hastatii,Principe and Triarii collectively called legionaries.The light infantry velites and the supporting cavalry called Equites.Each roman legion was supported by an equivalent number or sometimes even larger contingent of allied troops who were called socii - a mixture of cavalry and infantry.Above is the ingame representation of a roman acies triplex.

Velites -
Velites were the youngest and usually the poorest soldiers in the legion, and could rarely afford much equipment. They were armed with hastae velitares, light javelins with tips designed to bend on impact to prevent it being thrown back, similar to the heavier pila of other legionaries. As backup weapons, they also carried gladius for close-quarter protection.They fought in a very loose, staggered formation like most irregular and carried small round shields, 90 cm (3 feet) in diameter.These skirmishers were useful in broken terrain,and against elephants but if caught by cavalry in open ground would be slaughtered.They wore a headdress made from wolf skin to allow officers to differentiate between them and other heavier legionaries. Velites did not form their own units; a number of them were attached to each maniple of hastati,triarii and principe. Typically used as a screening force, driving off enemy skirmishers and disrupting enemy formations with javelin throws before retiring behind the lines to allow the heavier-armed hastati to attack.There were usually 1000-1200 velites in a manipular legion.Wore no armour.

Hastati & Principe -
The Hastati appear to have been originally remnants of the old third class of the servian constitution,based on wealth.By the time of the Punic wars however,infantry were sorted into classes according to age and experience rather than wealth, the hastati being the youngest and least experienced and fought in the first line.Even though they were still named hastati( spearmen) they fought in typical legionary fashion with galdius and scutum,after throwing their piulm.The hastati were in number 1,200 per legion, and formed 10 maniples of 120 men each.These hastati once battle hardened and more older would join the ranks of the principes.Their main difference with the principes in terms of equipment was in lighter armour -usually they wore only a square shaped heart protector rather than the expensive mail armour worn by the priincipes.However if such armour was available they would make good use of it.

Principes were real punch of the roman manipular legion.Older veterans with a greater degree of experience,equipped similar to hastati but with mail armour protection they fought in the second line in 10 maniples of 120 men each.These were men in the prime of their lives.It was on the mail-clad principe that the later roman professional legions were modelled and standardized under Marius,when the hastati and triarii were done away with.

 

[Nilgiri]

Triarii -
These were the oldest and among the wealthiest men in the army, and could afford high quality equipment. They wore heavy metal armor and carried large shields, their usual position being the third battle line. They were equipped with spears - the final remnant of the old phalanx.They had 2 functions .To either act as barrier troops or as a final assault reserve.10 half-maniples of 60 men each for a total of 600 triarii were present in each legion.In most battles triarii were not used because the lighter troops usually defeated the enemy before the triarii were committed to the battle. They were meant to be used as a decisive force in the battle, thus prompting an old Roman saying: 'It comes down to the triarii' , which meant carrying on to the bitter end.During the battle the Triarii usually rested on their knees with their spears pointed upwards.When it came for them to enter action it often appeared to the enemy after a prolonged fight with the first 2 lines that another 3rd army had literally risen up from the ground to face them anew.If the first 2 lines failed to break the enemy they presented a barrier of spears behind which the rest of the army could withdraw in order.

Equites -
These socially constituted the lower of the two aristocratic classes of Rome, ranking below the patricians.They were liable to cavalry service in the manipular legion. Equites originally provided a legion's entire cavalry contingent, although from an early stage, when equites numbers had become insufficient, large numbers of young men from the First Class of commoners were regularly volunteering for the service, which was considered more glamorous than the infantry. They were required to pay for their own equipment and horse, but that the latter would be refunded by the state if it was killed in action.Cavalrymen in service were paid a drachma per day, triple the infantry rate, and were liable to a maximum of ten campaigning seasons' military service, compared to 16 for the infantry.

Each Manipular legion contained a cavalry contingent of 300 horse, which does not appear to have been officered by an overall commander.The cavalry contingent was divided into 10 turmae(squadrons) of 30 men each. The squadron members would elect as their officers three decuriones , of whom the first to be chosen would act as the squadron's leader and the other two as his deputies.They usually fought as charge cavalry and were equipped with mail armour,metal helmet,spear and round shield.Cavalrymen would often dismount to fight.

While the roman cavalry of the period are often depicted as poor,this was not necessarily so.While they were nowhere near the relative power of their infantry counterparts on many occasions roman cavalry proved itself capable of holding their own against the best western cavalry of the time.Against Pyyrhus at Heraclea gaining the advantage in a bitterly contested melee against his thessalian cavalry, then regarded as the finest in the world, and were only driven back when Pyrrhus deployed his elephants, which panicked the Roman horses. Other examples include the Equites' victory over the vaunted Gallic horse at Telamon, against the Germanic cavalry of the Cimbri and Teutons at Vercellae, andthe seleucid cataphracts at magnesia.Their repeated defeats to Hannibal's cavalry were down to 2 causes - 1>being outnumbered by them and 2>being unable to effectively answer the hit and run tactics of the numidian cavalry with their simple charge tactics.

Above -The testudo formation offered the romans near immunity to missiles on the approach and during siges.Roman tactics was not still refined and fully developed in to seperate formations like wedge during this era,the testudo would have been in use if under heavy missile attack.

NEXT : ROMAN ALLIES ADN EQUIPMENT

 

[Nilgiri]

ROMAN ARMY -PART IV

ROMAN ALLIED FORCES :

The Roman allies did not pay tribute but were obligated to send troops to fight for Rome.They recieved a part of the spoils,total internal autonomy and occasional citizenship.Military and foreign policy lay entirely in the hands of the Roman executive authorities, the consuls and the policy-making body, the Senate.More than half of rome's avilable manpower came from these italian allies.Each roman legion was accompanied on the field by equal levy of allied italian troops.

The confederation did not maintain standing or professional military forces, but levied them, by compulsory conscription, as required for each campaigning season. They would then be disbanded at the end of a conflict. To spread the burden, no man was required to serve more than 16 campaign seasons.The Roman and allied levies were kept in separate formations. Roman citizens were assigned to the legions, while the Latin and Italian allies were organised into alae (literally: "wings", because they were always posted on the flanks of the Roman line of battle). A normal consular army would contain two legions and two alae, or about 20,000 men (17,500 infantry and 2,400 cavalry).

(An Italian Infantryman)

The Italian allies fought in the roman manner in maniples,but they didn't possess the uniform organization,standard equipment,training or dsicipline of the roman legionaries.

More than half of roman horsemen came from the allies,particularly the Campanian cavalry were excellent.Above is a south Italian cavalryman armed with javelins and spears.

ROMAN EQUIPMENT AND ARMS -

Pilum -
The Pilum was the deadly heavy javelin of the legionary that gave him his ranged firepower.It could also be employed as a spear to keep cavalry at bay.It was generally about 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) long overall, consisting of an iron shank about 7 millimetres (0.28 in) in diameter and 60 centimetres (24 in) long with pyramidal head. The shank was joined to the wooded shaft by either a socket or a flat tang.The iron shank was the key to the function of the pilum. The weapon had a hard pyramidal tip but the shank was made of softer iron. This softness would cause the shank to bend after impact, thus rendering the weapon useless to the enemy who might throw it back. However, there are many cases where the whole shank was hardened, making the pilum more suitable as a close quarters melee weapon, which also made it useful for enemy soldiers to pick it up and throw it back. More importantly, if the pilum struck a shield it might embed itself and thus the bending of the shank would force the enemy to discard it as they might waste time trying to pull it out in the middle of combat. Even if the shank did not bend, the pyramidal tip still made it very difficult to pull out.

 

[Nilgiri]

Most other javelins of the time were unable to penetrate a shield. By contrast, since the pyramidal tip of a pilum was wider than the rest of the shank, once it penetrated a shield, it left behind a hole larger than the rest of the shank, and it could move through the shield with little resistance, stabbing the soldier. The length of the shank and its depth of penetration also made it hard to pull out of a shield even if it failed to bend. If the bearer of the shield was charging and a Pilum penetrated the shield, the end of the heavy shaft of the Pilum would hit the ground, holding the shield in place. On some pila there was a spike on the end of the shaft which made it easier to dig into the ground.Pila were divided into two models: heavy and light. Recent experiments have shown pila to have a range of approximately 33 metres (100 ft), although the effective range is up to 15–20 m (50–70 ft).Pila storm in action in the first picture.

Gladius Hipaniensis -
The classic roman short sword,it was adopted from the spanish swords(earlier romans used swords similar to greek xiphos) that the romans came into contact with during the first punic war against carthage's mercenaries.The Pilum would be thrown to disable the shields and disrupt the formation of the enemy before engaging in close combat, for which the gladius would be drawn. The soldier generally led with his shield and thrust with his sword.Gladii were two-edged for cutting and had a tapered point for stabbing during thrusting. A solid grip was provided by a knobbed hilt added on, possibly with ridges for the fingers. Blade strength was achieved by welding together strips, in which case the sword had a channel down the center, or by fashioning a single piece of high-carbon steel, rhomboidal in cross-section.Stabbing was a very efficient technique, as stabbing wounds, especially in the abdominal area, were almost always deadly. However, the gladius was also used for cutting or slashing,the Macedonian soldiers for example were horrified to see dismembered bodies during their wars with Rome. Though the primary infantry attack was thrusting at stomach height, they were trained to take any advantage, such as slashing at kneecaps beneath the shield wall.The original Hispanic sword, which was used during the republic, had a slight "wasp-waist" or "leaf-blade" curvature.At least 3 more variants of the galdius would be produced over the course of the roman empire.The gladius remains one of the deadliest weapons in human history.Along with the Ak-47,Maxim machine gun,Turco-mongol composite bow one of the weapons responsible for most deaths in human history.The legionaries also carried a small dagger Pugio as a weapon of last resort.

Scutum -
The scutum was a 10-kilogram (22 lb) large rectangle/oval curved shield made from three sheets of wood glued together and covered with canvas and leather, usually with a spindle shaped boss along the vertical length of the shield.The scutum is light enough to be held in one hand and its large height and width covered the entire wielder, making him very unlikely to get hit by missile fire and in hand-to-hand combat. The metal boss, or umbo, in the center of the scutum also made it an auxiliary punching weapon as well.The aspis round shield it replaced was heavier and provided less protective coverage than the scutum but was much more durable.However it couldn't form the testudo like the scutum and was also more costly.

Lorica (Armour) -
The hastati wore a bronze pectoral, which was a square, to protect the heart and upper chest, although those who could afford it would wear instead an iron mail shirt (lorica hamata).The lorica hamata would later become standard issue.Mail armour was invented by the gauls and rapidly became popular.It was normally made of iron rings, on average about 1mm thick and 3-9mm in external diameter, it took some 10,000-20,000 rings to make a mail shirt. The wearer's shoulders could be reinforced with 'doubling'.
Extremely popular with the soldiers. A mail shirt was flexible and essentially shapeless, fitting more closely to the wearer's body than other types of armour. In this respect it was comfortable, whilst the wearing of a waist belt helped to spread its considerable weight, which would otherwise be carried entirely by the shoulders. Mail offered good melee protection, but could be penetrated by a strong thrust or an arrow fired at effective range.It was near impervious to slashing attacks.Its main drawbacks were weight(10-15kg) and that it was very time consuming to manufacture.The Roman officers and trairii also wore bronze breastplates.

NEXT : HANNIBAL'S ARMY

 

[Nilgiri]

THE CARTHAGINIAN ARMY

(Above is the Carthaginian command staff.Senior Leadership was one great advantage Hannibal's army had over the Romans.These were full-time professionals with years of experience working with each other in Iberia and with complete mutual trust.In contrast the roman commanders were soldier cum politicians.)

The most distinct feature of the Carthaginian army was its composition. Contrary to most other states in the Mediterranean at the time, the army was composed almost exclusively of foreign mercenary units while its navy was manned by citizens.The early carthaginian armies were composed of citizen hoplite militia ,but this practice was gradually abandoned due to heavy losses in the wars in sicily and requirements for the navy.Carthage regularly began employing Iberian infantry and Balearic slingers to support Carthaginian spearmen.Punic recruiters toured all corners of the Mediterranean, attracting mercenaries and fugitive slaves.Gauls,Numidians,Greeks,Libyans and especially Iberians (Spaniards) were extensively recruited by Carthage. Troops were recruited both by simple monetary contracts and through partnerships established through treaties with other states and tribes.

Carthage's armies faced heavy defeats in the First Punic war on land to the roman legions.The Carthaginians recruited the Spartan mercenary captain Xanthippus, who was charged with retraining and restructuring the Carthaginian army.Xanthippus split his cavalry between his two wings, with mercenary infantry screening the cavalry, and a hastily raised citizen phalanx in the center screened by a line of elephants in front of the spearmen. Previously, Carthaginian generals have placed the elephants behind the central phalanx.Xanthippus also realized the mistakes that the Carthaginians were making by avoiding open ground battles against the Romans, instead seeking only uneven terrain. This was done out of fear of the Romans' superior infantry. Such a strategy, however, restricted Carthage's strongest elements: its cavalry and elephants. The uneven terrain also disrupted the phalanx and favored the more flexible legion. By seeking battles on open plains, Xanthippus was able to make the fullest use of Carthage's strengths, where Roman formations broke under attack from the elephant and cavalry charges.Under Xanthippus's leadership Carthage was able to repulse a roman invasion of Africa.The reforms of Xanthippus were expanded upon and improved by Hamilcar and it would be under his son -Hannibal that carthaginian tactical finesse reached its peak.

(Spanish infantry)

The army Hannibal led was probably the best carthage had ever fielded.It had its origins in the veteran force hamilcar had brought with him to spain 2 decades earlier,where it was greatly expanded.It was battle hardened,the commanders and men were thoroughly familiar with each other and largely professional mercenary force.The Alps march had weeded out the weak and left a hardened force of veterans.Despite this however it remained a polygot mercenary force of many nationalities,lacking the unity and cohesion of the romans.In the second punic war whenever hannibal was not present carthaginians suffered series of defeats to the roman legions and even in hannibal's battles,face to face the romans often broke through the carthaginian infantry lines in a contest of brute strength.It was ultimately Hannibal's generalship and force of character that held it together.There was no standard carthaginian tactic as such.It all depended on the commander's ability and the troop types available.

SPANISH INFANTRY :
Hannibal entered Italy with 8000 Iberian infantry.Above are light and medium spanish infantry.The spanish light infantry were adept at ambushes and fighting in broken terrain which hannibal would employ to full extent.The spanish medium infantry equipment-wise were similar to the hastati,minus the discipline.The spaniards fought with their national close-quarter weapon - The Falcata short sword,which was very similar to the greek kopis but had developed in parallel.They used shields and spears as well -there being no standardized equipment.Light infantry would carry javelins.Light infantry wore no armour,while the medium infantry would wear a circular breastplate.The spanish light infantry were often called -Caetrati.

Above are spanish heavy infantry -the Scuttarii .Equipped with shields,scale or mail armour(taken from romans often) and armed with javelins and the falcata these were solid close quarters infantry.The carthaginian counterpart to the Roman Principes ,minus the discipline and formations.The spanish tactics were similar to the romans,to shower the enemy with javelins and then close with the falcata short sword.

 

[Nilgiri]

GALLIC INFANTRY :
The gauls of north italy joined Hannibal enmasse after his invasion and formed a significant part of both his infantry and cavalry at trebbia,trasimene and cannae.The typical gallic warrior carried a shield,a spear and a longsword for close combat.Only the wealthy warriors and chieftains could afford mail armour.Many gauls fought naked to prove their manliness.Their method of war consisted of savage warcries followed by a massive charge designed to crush the enemy line with brute force and then hack at it with their longswords.The romans hated and feared the gauls,who were known for their physical stature and ferocity and considered them the stereotype 'barbarians'.The gauls fought uder their own chieftains.

Gallic warriors often painted their bodies to intimidate their foes.Despite their immense bravery,
The gauls lacked discipline and tended to become dispirited if their charge was withstood.The gallic individualistic style of fighting,and slashing with the longsword was at a distinct disadvantage against the romans organized formations and punch and thrust swordplay,especially if they lost their shields to pila shower.Hannibal considered these troops fickle and unreliable and used them as expendable manpower- 'Pila-fodder' in his own words to takethe brunt of the roman initial attacks.Nearly half of hannibal's army at Cannae was gallic.It is his immense credit that he was able to keep such troops under his command for 16 years in a hostile land without a single instance of mutiny.

(Hannibal's African Infantry)


AFRICAN INFANTRY & BALEARIC SLINGERS :

The elite of Hannibal's army were his heavy african infantry -the Liby-phoenecian Spearmen.Superbly drilled and armed in the hoplite fashion they were equipped with round or oval shields ,mail/linothorax armour,metal helmet and greaves and a short sword.Many of these veterans were from Hamilcar's time and they would play a crucial role in each of Hannibal's battles.The Libyans were the native subjects of Carthage and supplied the core of the Carthaginian army. They had served in Carthaginian armies from a very early date. During the sixth century, Carthage had stopped relying on a citizen levy and began to hire mercenaries and employ allied troops, many whom would have been Libyan.

Hannibal entered Italy with 12,000 african troops of which 8,000 were heavy infantry.The rest would have constituted the libyan/numidian javelineers shown to the right.These fought as skirmishers.The light Libyan infantry carried javelins and a small shield, the same as Iberian light infantry.
Also brought from the Balearic islands of spain would be the famed Balearic slingers(to the left) -famed mercenaries of the mediterranean they would be later employed by the romans against parthian horse archers in particular.Hannibal brought with him at least 2,000 balearic slingers -light troops of very high quality.They employed different types of bullets for their slings.The accuracy and volume of firepower produced by these elite slingers made them superior to archers.

NEXT : HANNIBAL'S CAVALRY & ELEPHANTS

 

[Nilgiri]

THE CARTHAGINIAN CAVALRY

SPANISH CAVALRY :
The one significant area where Hannibal held an edge -both in numbers and quality was in cavalry and he would exploit this advantage to the hilt.Hannibal's cavalry was composed of iberian,african and gallic components.Hannibal entered Italy with 6000 cavalry,maybe half of which was spanish.Spanish cavalry was generally shock cavalry,both armoured and non- armored.Above is a heavy iberian cavalryman -probably a chieftain.Only richer warriors could afford horses and armour.

Representation of an iberian horseman of the era.He wears a sinew cap and a white tunic trimmed with crimson.Carries a central handgrip round shield,a spear and a falcata.Horsemen would often dismount for combat.

GALLIC CAVALRY :
The gauls provided Hannibal with good shock cavalry.The gallic mounted horsemen were composed of the nobility and their retainers and had excellent equipment.Mail armour,gallic iron helmet,long lance,longsword and shield.They would fight as shock charge cavalry.Gallic cavalry would be used as auxillaries by the romans for centuries during the late republic and empire era.The 4-horned gallic saddle provided excellent balance and was adopted by the romans.

AFRICAN CAVALRY :
Hannibal's african cavalry would have composed of 2 types.The Liby-phoenecian heavy citizen cavalry which would have been the mounted retainers of the carthagianian commanders.Armed with lance,linothorax armour as typical hellenistic horsemen of the day,they would have been small in number.