BATTLE REPORT - Ulm-Austerlitz 1805

[Nilgiri]

CUIRASSIERS:When Napoleon came to power he inherited 28 regiments of largely understrength heavy cavalry.Much of them were heavy cavalry mostly in name.Only 2 regiments had body armour.The use of body armour or cuirasses in europe had declined to the point of being nonexistent.Only a handful regiments in the russian and prussian guards still used cuirasses and that too only with the front chestplate.Neither austria nor britain used armoured cavalry,which was considered an anachronism.Napoleon first used the best troopers from the understrength regiments and used them to fill up the ranks of the other regiments to 4 squadron per regiment.In this way 12 full strength cuirassier regiments were formed .The rest of the men left in the other regiments were converted to dragoons.These 12 regiments were then uparmoured with the full plate cuirass.All were ready by 1805.




The most feared among all french horsemen,The French cuirassiers were the descendants of the medieval knights, who could turn a battle with their sheer weight,massed shock and brute force.
These were the big men on big horses who were held in reserve exclusively for service in battle.Because of the weight of their armour and weapons, both trooper and horse had to be big and strong, and could consequently put a lot of force behind their charge.They were never parcelled out among the individual corps,but kept concentrated in a central heavy cavalry reserve in cavalry divisions.Cuirassiers were also exempt from escort and picket duty and used solely in pitched battle.




Due to their large size and heavy armor, which increased their protection and survivability, the heavy cavalry was Napoleon’s decisive combat arm that could deliver a devastating blow upon enemy units when properly employed.Typically heavy cavalry charges were used in conjunction with the artillery. Following an artillery barrage, the heavy cavalry charged forward in mass in order to penetrate enemy lines and exploit any tactical success. Napoleon also used his heavy cavalry to counterattack any enemy cavalry assault.




The heavy cavalry,was equipped and armed almost like the knights of old with a heavy cuirass(breastplate) and helmets of brass and iron and armed with straight long sabers, pistols and later carbines.Few cuirassiers ever used firearms except pistols,trusting solely to cold steel.Though the cuirass could not protect against flintlock musket fire, it could deflect shots from long range, offered moderate protection from pistol fire and could protect the wearer from ricochets. More importantly, in an age which saw cavalry used in large numbers, the breastplates provided protection against the swords and lances of opposing cavalry.Cuirassiers were the worst nightmare of lancers,lancers were used to outreaching their opponents like hussars and dragoon with their lance -but usually found themselves helpless against the armour of the cuirassiers.

Cuirassiers often made a strong impression on friend and foe alike.The british who had never faced these metal clad horsemen in spain,were very impressed with them at waterloo.They believed them to be 'bonaparte's bodyguard'.After waterloo the british adopted the cuirassier's armour and straight sword for their own Household cavalry.In the grande armee itself they were nicknamed the 'Steel waistcoats' or the 'Emperor's Big boots'.

CARABINIERS -A-CHEVAL :




The other heavy cavalry were the horse carabiniers.Just 2 regiments were present,their regimental histories dating back to before Louis XIV.These were considered elite heavy cavalry.They were used in the same fashion and armed similar to cuirassiers.But they lacked cuirasses in 1805.They wore blue dress with black bearskin caps,and rode exclusively black horses.They were given cuirasses and a whole dress makeover in 1809.Their outfits in 1805 were very similar to the elite horse grenadiers of the imperial guard.



Heavy cavalry and dragoons used a straight heavy thrusting sword.Unlike the curved sabres these were honed to use the point instead of the slash.The thrust was more deadly than the cut.Also the longer reach of the thrusting sword gave a small advantage in the initial clash between opposing horsemen.(an advantage multiplied if u also had body armour)


NAPOLEON'S EMPLOYMENT OF HIS CAVALRY ARM :


''Cavalry is useful before,during and after the battle'' -Napoleon

Napoleon made great use of his cavalry arm,adding a strategic dimension to their role.
Napoleon’s tactical methods involved three phases during which the cavalry played a critical role in each. The first phase was the movement to contact in which the light cavalry, performing reconnaissance missions forward of the advancing main body, would establish contact with the enemy forces. This would set the conditions for the advance guard to fix the enemy, phase two. The second phase began as the main body’s advance guard began to engage the enemy. While this was taking place, the light cavalry would then position themselves off to a flank in order to establish a screen line that would conceal the maneuver force’s positioning from the enemy, prior to the impending flank attack. The third phase involved the reinforcement of the advanced guard’s fight as they engaged the enemy in a battle of attrition. Once the enemy was fixed, Napoleon would then launch a flanking attack to cut off the enemy’s line of retreat and force him to extend and fight in two directions at once.
It was then at this apex of the line, where the enemy was typically weakest, that Napoleon selected for his point for penetration. A massed artillery bombardment would devastate the weakened enemy line, and the heavy cavalry would be committed to smash the line and exploit the enemy. Once the artillery and heavy cavalry created the gap, the light cavalry would then be committed to follow through and begin the pursuit.(each of these phases will be described with diagrams in later section-Napoleon's art of war)

Thus light and medium cavalry were the main types useful before and after the battle,while they played a supporting role in battle.While the heavy cavalry was useful exclusively in battle.For this purpose the entire heavy cavalry was massed into a central cavalry reserve.The light cavalry was distributed among the various corps and some dragoons as well.The cavalry corps had the massed heavy cavalry regiments,plus more dragoon regiments and its own light cavalry regiments(those not distributed among the corps)so that they could perform screening and reconssaince for the entire army.This huge cavalry corps or reserve was commanded by marshal murat and had its own artillery support.


NEXT: French Cavalry tactics,commanders,analysis.

 

[Nilgiri]

FRENCH CAVALRY TACTICS:



ADVANTAGES OF FRENCH CAVALRY :French cavalrymen in general were inferior in horsemanship and swordsmanship to the german and russian horsemen.Yet they won astonishing successes throughout the napoleonic wars.This has been attributed to several causes.


"When I speak of excellent French cavalry, I refer to its impetous bravery, and not to its perfection; for it does not compare with the Russian or German cavalry either in horsemanship, organization, or in care of the animals."-Jomini,military thinker.

"The French cavalry was, on the whole, poorly mounted and poorly equipped; its men were awkward horsemen. Yet it outclassed its opponents simply because, when order rang out and trumpets clarioned 'Charge !' it put in its spurs and charged all out, charged home !" -Archduke Charles,The best austrian commander.
Many believed that the impetous nature of mounted combat appealed to the impulsive gallic spirit and that it was naturally suited to the frenchman's disposition.Indeed throughout the middle ages france had been the centre of european chivalry and knighthood.

A more important reason lay in superior french organization.
The French consistently have the lowest ratios of number of troopers per leader/officer among the major powers and
of the French cavalry, the cuirassiers have the lowest: from 4.6 to 6.3. Other nations have far less leadership: Russia-7.8, Britain- 6.1, Austria- 8.1, and Prussia- 6.5.This abundance of officers gave them superior control and flexibility.This advantage lasted until 1813,when the russian campaign had devastated the french cavalry corps.

This point was more deeply researched by historian Nafziger,and he points out the superior positioning of the leaders in a french cavalry squadron compared to other powers as a major factor.(First picture of a french cuirassier squadron of over 100 strong gives an idea).




Above depicts the placement of officers and NCOs in a french squadron.
The french system of placement is very well balanced.The squadron is divided into 4 troops or manuever elements,each one of these have an officer leading it.Plus the senior captain of the squadron in front giving overall guidance.
They ensure squadron will go precisely in the direction desired and that troopers would not go too forward and thus lose alignment.Each of the four manuever sub-units also have a NCO on their flanks giving excellent lateral control,aiding in turning movements and preventing files from becoming loose.To the rear the rear officers push the men forward,ensure they closed up properly for the charge and prevented men from stopping(thus disrupting momentum of the whole body) or deserting to the rear when opposing bodies collided.The junior captain is to the rear centre.The french placement of officers thus gave very good frontal and lateral control,as well as the ability to rally quickly after a charge.(very important lest they be countercharged when disorganized)




Russian and british cavalry in comparison.
The russian system is closest to the french and quite effective.Frontally they are near identical to the french and would provide equally good control.Laterally the NCos are placed on flanks of the maneuver elements but alternately,there are not so many of them as in the french.Each flank of the 4 manuever elements do not have one as in they french case,and the extreme flanks of the second line are exposed.So lateral control is inferior than the french,turning and flank action would be more problematic.Rear control is similar to the french,however the number of NCOs is lesser and there is no overall superior officer for guidance like the french junior captain.So rear control is also marginally inferior.

The major flaw in the british system is that all officers except the squadron commander upfront are integrated into the front ranks themselves.Forward leadership thus is left to just one man who has to at once make tactical decisions on the movement of his squadron,provide directional guidance to all 4 manuevering elements,make sure the squadron moves in the precise direction desired and also ensure none of the troops move ahead and break alignment.It is very difficult for him to perform all of these tasks simultaneously with complete effectiveness.British lateral control however is excellent and the bulk of the squadrons leaders have been employed for this task.Like the french they box the troops in and keep the files tight for good shock impact.An adequate number of leaders ensure satisfactory rear control.The british squadron due to its poor forward control would have difficulty stopping the charge or rallying afterwards.While the french system of placing multiple officers in front of their men ensured that troopers kept their heads and didn't charge off or scatter in the heat of battle,the loss of forward control and resultant disorganization was frequent occurance for british cavalry.(example waterloo)




The prussian cavalry squadron is identical to the british in the frontal control aspect and suffers all the same problems.Lateral control too is quite poor due to small number of leaders and the left flank being exposed without any leader.The rear control is excellent and heavily emphasized,this placement relies on pushing the squadron rather than leading it.The prussians from late 1812 adopted a different system that was very similar to the french.

"The enemy [Hungarian hussars] had charged us 3 or 4 times during this engagement. Some of them would break into our ranks, many passed right through and circled back to regain their lines, and after charge they ended in complete disorganization. The French, on the other hand, although they also lost formation after a charge, kept together far more and every time were quicker to regain order. ... although the Hungarians drove home their attacks with determination, they were harder to reform into some sort of order. The French, on the other hand, knew that their own horses lacked the Austrians' speed and endurance, and would launch their attacks from closer range and so retained formation right to the end of the charge, and regained it more quickly afterwards." -French officer.

The austrians had the lowest numbers of officers per men,to compound this they had the worst frontal control of all,having zero leaders upfront even worse than the 1 in the british and prussian case.They emphasized lateral control and tight packing,having the largest number here.Consequently austrian cavalry,particularly the hungarians despite being superb horsemen were regularly routed by the french in mid-large scale engagements that required frontal control.

Due to the excellent balance and organization of the french cavalry squadrons,they became famous for actions in mass or large scale engagements.French cavalry launched some of the greatest massed charges of the napoleonic wars involving over 10,000 horsemen at eylau,borodino and leipzig.The french advantage in large scale engagements was not unnoticed -

"I considered our (British) cavalry so inferior to the French from the want of order, that although I considered one squadron a match for two French, I didn't like to see four British opposed to four French: and as the numbers increased and order, of course, became more necessary I was the more unwilling to risk our men without having a superiority in numbers."-Wellington




LIGHT CAVALRY SKIRMISHING:Above picture shows a hypothetical example of french dragoons skirmishing.1,2 and 3 depict a scenario of dismounted dragoons formed up in a skirmish line.They would operate in pairs,one firing while the other reloaded.Little to their rear are the small group of officers(2) directing the fire.To their rear are the horses of dismounted dragoons.

(4 )depicts a similar but seperate scenario where the dragoons are skirmishing while mounted.In each case a small mounted reserve is kept nearby to intervene if necessary with shock action(5).

 

[Nilgiri]

CAVALRY FORMATIONS:



Cavalry typically used 3 formations.Line,Column and Echelon.The line was the most common,the scwarm attack was used only by prussian and saxon cavalry.

The Line Formation:

This was the standard formation.It allowed the use of every available sabre at contact and also to outflank an enemy by its wide frontage.Usually 2 lines were formed,the second reserve line reinforced the initial attack or attempted a flank.Often light and heavy cavalry were used together,the light cavalry either screened the buildup of heavy cavalry or remained behind or on the flanks of the heavy cavalry.In the second case they would charge the flanks and rear of the enemy cavalry after the heavy cavalry had engaged from the front.For this,sometimes a third line was formed.The russians were most notable for use of this tactic.(This caused french cavalry severe problems at heilsberg in 1807,one of the very few large scale cavalry engagements before 1812 where the french came off second best despite superior numbers-due to flank and rear attacks from light cavalry)




One of the common ways of moving from column to line.Changing from line to column and column to line was similar to that of infantry.


The Attaque en echiquer or Checkerboard formation attack was a variation of the line formation.The gaps in the line allowed the first wave to retire while the other continued the assault.Here it is being used against an austrian battalion mass(used instead of hollow square).The multi wave attack will test the defences from different angles in short succession.

The advantages of line formation were - Ability to bring maximum number of sabres into action,less vulnerable to artillery,intimidating appearance and outflanking capability.

Its disadvantages were - The longer the line more shallow it was and susceptible to being broken by overwhelming mass if outstretched.Difficult to manuever and control,tended to break up over bad terrain.Finally its flanks were extremely vulnerable and if attacked tended to roll up.




The Echelon Attack:

'It was a formation in which each unit (squadron, regiment, brigade or division) was positioned successively to the left ("left echelon"), or right of the rear unit (a "right echelon"), to form a steplike line. The echelon formation was used because of better range of vision and some space offered to many participants in the formation. The rear echelon could be held back until the result of the first echelon's charge was clear. This could facilitate exploiting a weakness, attacking an exposed flank as the enemy moved forward to envelop the front echelon, or to cover a withdrawal.



The enemy was hit by a successive shocks as the units hit home at intervals. This initial impact would begin the process of breaking up the linear integrity of the defending unit. As the enemy line began to destabilise a second, fresh force would strike it, accelerating its disintegration. In the case of an echelon attack there would be several successive shocks that, theoretically, would ensure its destruction.

Next:Cavalry Tactics Contd,French cavalry commanders.

 

[Nilgiri]

FRENCH CAVALRY TACTICS II



THE COLUMN FORMATION:The column was used for marching, and on the battlefield for maneuvering, advancing, and for charging. The regiment, brigade, division, and even several divisions, could be formed in column. The column was called by its frontage and depth. For example, cavalry regiment of four squadrons (eight half-squadrons) formed in a column, could have width of one squadron, or one half-squadron. The column was also called by its depth. It means by intervals between the squadrons, or half-squadrons. The main purpose of the interval was to provide space for the squadrons, or half-squadrons, to wheel into a position if they want to form a line, or change the direction of their advance. (columns of several depth and width shown above and below)




[Hussars in close column]

The column was widely used in the revolutionary wars,but declined in usage during the heydays of the empire.It again came into widespread usage after 1813 when the new recruits were unable to use advanced formations effectively.In general french being inferior horsemen employed columns more than the other nations.Column was used against enemy infantry in columns or square and against heavy cavalry.


[Cuirassiers in column]

Advantages of Column:
Faster,more manueverable and much better in broken terrain.Good for using in large scale brigade/division level formations.
Disadvantages of Column:
Vulnerable to artillery and inability to bring all sabres into contact on charge due to narrower frontage than line.Liable to be flanked due to narrow frontage.

CAVALRY VS CAVALRY:



In cavalry vs cavalry engagements there were some general trends that dictated victory except for organization,training and spirit of the opposing units.

>Always be the one to charge and meet the opponent with momentum.If a squadron got charged while static,most of the time(except a few handful cases )it would be routed by the weight and momentum of the enemy charge.Never stand and recieve a charge .

>In a prolonged cavalry duel,the one with the final reserve usually wins.

>Horses should gallop only the last part of the charge,if they galloped from too far away they would be blown by the time they reached the enemy.This was common mistake of inexperienced units.

>The ability to rally quickly is very important.If caught while scattered defeat is inevitable.

>Flank attacks almost always ensure victory.Even the best trained cuirassiers are vulnerable to light cavalry if taken from the flank.




>The thrust using the point of the sword is generally more lethal than the cut or slash.Above, a few scenarios.A french dragoon and british cavalryman.(1)British horseman slashing and dragoon sabre raised to parry.Slash was easier to parry due to the large arc movement.(2)Dragoon thrusts with superior reach and stabs his opponent mortally.The attempted slash/parry is slow or on the wrong angle.(3)Dragoon attempts a downward thrust on a unhorsed opponent,he parries succesfully.

 

[Nilgiri]

CAVALRY VS INFANTRY:




[Slash and downward thrust]
Cavalry vs infantry was a situational affair.In line, infantry were liable to be slaughtered.In column cavalry could be held off,provided columns were deeply packed..however if columns were taken on the flank like at marengo they were still very vulnerable.In square formation however the tables would be turned.9 out of 10 times cavalry would fail against a square.Only infantry with low morale were at risk .Against steady squares cavalry needed close artillery support or infantry fire to blast holes in the square to make any impact.

''An average strength battalion with 600 men formed a square 3 ranks deep, this meant that on one side were some 150 soldiers, all of whom could fire and contributed bayonets to the hedge. They covered a frontage of about 25 m (50 men x 0.5 m). The most cavalrymen that the enemy could bring to face them were 50 in 2 ranks (25 men x 1 m). But only the men in first rank could attack at a time, some 6 muskets + bayonets confronted a single lance or saber.




The man with saber could not strike the infantrymen behind the bayonets - he did not have the reach.
A lancer had a better chance although he was still outnumbered by 6 to 1. Either the lancer or his horse was far more likely to be spiked than he was to inflict any damage at all."

Cavalry did real damage to infantry formations if they were scattered or retreating.Being both faster than them and having the height advantage.Pursuit of broken infantry was a cavalryman's dream.

''Without cavalry,battles are without result''-Napoleon.( on the importance of pursuit)
HORSES:




Availability of good horses was a major factor on the performance of cavalry.In 1805 french had a shortage of horses that led to 4 dragoon regiments being unhorsed.After 1805 and 1806 campaigns napoleon took austrian and prussian horses to magnificently re-equip french cavalry formations.The bigger black battle horses were more powerful and could carry men with armour,however they lacked stamina.

The smaller horses were swifter and had more stamina,but lacked the weight and force of the bigger breeds used by the heavy cavalry.

NEXT: Notable french cavalry commanders.French Artillery.

 

[Nilgiri]

FRENCH CAVALRY COMMANDERS


MURAT:
Leader of the french cavalry- Marshal Joachim Murat.Born son of a priest,he joined Napoleon early and rose to prominence during the italian and egyptian campaigns.He later became the king of naples and the brother-in-law of napoleon.Extremely brave,he had a great eye for the charge and was good at leading massed charges.He led the greatest charges of the napoleonic wars at leipzig and eylau,and led in some other huge cavalry battles such as borodino,austerlitz and heilsberg.His great achievement was the pitiless pursuit of the prussian army after jena that ensured its destruction.He was called the 'First saber of europe' and a celebrity among cavalrymen of his day europewide(cossacks often cheered him in the russian campaign!).
Extravagantly dresses in his tigerskin horse he often charged just whip in hand.Napoleon complained he needed women like food.Despite being this however his overall tactics often left a lot to be desired.As he boasted himself about his tactics-

''Put in your spurs and ride at, over, and through anything that gets in your way !"

''He [Murat] loved, I may rather say, adored me. ... With me, he was my right arm. Order Murat to attack and destroy four or five thousand men in such or such a direction, it was done in a flash. But left to himself he was an imbecile, without judgement."-Napoleon
After the 1813 campaign murat abandoned the grande armee to preserve his throne of naples.A furious napoleon refused to let him command the french cavalry at waterloo.Despite this he later lamented that he could have won waterloo had murat led the french cavalry instead of ney.He was executed by the neapolitans in 1815.

LaSalle:


Antoinne Charles Louis De Lasalle.The legendary hussar general,and an age-old napoleonic fan favourite.A known daredevil,recklessly brave with reputation for drinking,dueling and womanizing.He first came to napoleon's attention in italy where he was found to have spent the night behind enemy lines seducing a woman.Napoleon would have court-martialled him when he also revealed information on austrian positions.Considering Lasalle's temperament, napoleon only remarked -
''Commandant Lasalle,Remember that name''

Lasalle soon made a name for himself,at Rivoli he alone captured six of the 11 austrian standards taken leading a devastating surprise charge with only 25 men.In egypt he made further exploits and saved davout's life.His greatest exploit came at stettin in prussia 1806 where he and 500 hussars bluffed the fortress with 8000 well stocked men into surrendering.At heilsberg,he saved murat's life.He also founded the "Society of Alcoholics", which shocked the high society of Paris.And made his famous comment-
''Any hussar who isn't dead by the age of thirty is a blackguard''

On Lasalle's wedding,Napoleon gave Lasalle 200,000 francs towards the nuptials. When they met Napoleon asked, "When is the wedding?” Lasalle replied, "Sire, when I have enough money to buy the wedding presents and furniture". Napoleon said, "But I gave you 200,000 francs last week, what did you do with them?". Lasalle replied, "I used half to pay my debts and have lost the rest gambling". Such a confession would have broken the career of any other soldier,but napoleon merely smiled and gave him another 200,000.When the astonished prefect asked why he tolerated such conduct,bonaparte simply replied-

"It only takes a stroke of a pen to create a prefect, but it takes twenty years to make a Lasalle".
Lasalle served with distinction in spain before moving to join the army for the 1809 austrian campaign.To Roederer’s question if he were traveling to the front via Paris, Lasalle replied,
"Yes, it’s the shortest way. I shall arrive at 5 a.m.; I shall order a pair of boots; I shall make my wife pregnant, and I shall depart"!



He was considered the finest light cavalry commander in the grande armee.His tactical skill and control was superior to murat and he could also lead mass charges.He trained the polish cavalry of the guard.The poles remembered him with fondness.

"It was in Lasalle's school that we learned outpost duty. We have kept a precious memory of this general in whom all the lovable and imposing qualities of a born marshal were combined ... He should have replaced Murat to whom he was vastly superior ..."
Lasalle was killed in Wagram 1809 by a headshot leading a charge pipe in hand.His loss was keenly felt.Among the commanders of the french cavalry it was said 4 could truly lead massed cavalry -Murat,Lasalle,Kellerman and Montbrun.
KELLERMAN:



The son of the older kellerman,victor of valmy,kellerman was an accomplished diplomat as well as a great cavalry commander.A polished individual he was however a notorious looter/embezzler.He was less impetous but more oppurtunistic and calculating as a commander.His greatest feat came at marengo in 1800 where his 700 dragoons delivered a devastating charge that turned the battle.He led throughout the napoleonic wars till the end at waterloo.Bulk of his service during the later part was in spain. He was wounded at waterloo.He survived the bourbon restoration and lived to see their overthrow in 1830.
He was one of the lesser hyped but consistently brilliant french cavalry commanders.

MONTBRUN:



On par with lasalle,Montbrun-originally a chasseur was another brilliant commander.He possessed an exceptional talent for controlling large formations of mixed cavalry and was less headstrong than lasalle.Montbrun performed with distinction in the revolutionary wars,then at austerlitz,in spain .His great feats were the heroic charge at somosierra leading the poles and his brilliant defensive movements supporting davout in austria 1809.He was killed by a cannonball at borodino 1812 in russia.He was on the verge of being promoted to marshal.

 

[Nilgiri]

GROUCHY:


A dragoon general of aristocratic origin,grouchy was cautious but capable general who served well throughout the napoleonic wars.He took good care of his soldiers.His great feat at freidland 1807 was to hold off uvarov's numerically superior russian cavalry using brilliant combined arms tactics.However his indecisiveness also was revealed in the same battle when towards the end he let an oppurtunity pass to completely destroy the russian army..He served well during the 1813-14 campaigns and was made marshal for the 1815 waterloo campaign.However his failure to stop blucher from interfering in the battle or joining the battle himself contributed to bonaparte's downfall. Overall a tactically solid,but cautious commander-though not one of greats.He lived until 1847 to see his tarnished reputation restored.

D'HAUTPOUL:


A heavy cavalry specialist of ancient nobility,he was already a legend in the french army before napoleon's rise.An old veteran of the royal army he gave stellar service in the glory years of the grande armee.Tall,fiery and of gigantic stature,he commanded total respect from his cuirassier and carabiniers.Served with distinction at austerlitz and jena,leading the premier heavy cavalry divisions.At hoff his cuirassiers smashed through russian infantry squares leading to napoleon publicly embracing him.An embarassed hautpoul proclaimed only way he could repay such an honour was to get himself killed.Before the grand charge at eylau he announced-

"Sire, I am going to show you my big heels; they will go into the enemies' squares as if they were made of butter!"

His cuirassiers performed magnificently at eylau,breaking through 3 lines of russian defences.D'hautpoul was killed near the end of the action by a cannonball that blew away his his leg.France probably lost its best heavy cavalry commander with him.

NANSOUTY:

The other reknowned french heavy cavalry specialist,nansouty served throughout the napoleonic wars.In 1805 he was given command of the 6-regiment 1st heavy cavalry division of the cavalry reserve.(The other heavy cavalry division being under dhautpoul).A strict officer from noble origins ,his division soon acquired the reputation of being the best administered and most exact in its manoeuvres.He conducted superb charges at austerlitz,friedland,eggmuhl 1809 and during the 1814 campaign in france.
"His men were always carefully trained and cared for. Yet there was no elan in his character, no readiness for an unexpected, all-out blow to save a desperate day. His disposition was mordant ... "

He was often criticized for being overcautious and lacking elan.However his division was always well cared for and well organized and he cared deeply for his men.In 1814 when commanded to attack a fortified position by napoleon,he halted his squadron and advanced alone.When asked to explain his behaviour,he answered that he would not let his men die in vain and would charge alone following his orders.The order was revoked.Nansouty died in late 1814 due to poor health.

Next: French Artillery:The imperial guard:Napoleon's art of war:The russian army:The austrian army.

 

[Nilgiri]

FRENCH ARTILLERY



''God is on the side with the best artillery''-Napoleon
Napoleon himself was an artillery officer and on assuming power inherited an artillery arm that he himself declared to be the best in europe.The artillery unlike the cavalry was manned mostly by men from the middle class and was relatively unaffected by the revolution.French officers were younger,courageous,imaginative and extremely aggressive.

"The French artillery has always ranked very high. Almost all improvements made in gunnery, during the last three or four centuries, have originated with the French. The theoretical branch of artillery has also been constantly a favorite science with the French; their mathematical turn of mind favors this; and the precision of language, the scientific method, the soundness of views, which characterize their artilleristic literature, show how much this branch of science is adapted to the national genius."

Throughout the napoleonic wars the french remained the best exponents of artillery,right till the very end.From the late napoleonic age the age of artillery truly begins where it began to overshadow both infantry and cavalry as the true killer of the battlefield.



THE GRIBEAUVAL SYSTEM:

The origins of the superb artillery arm lay in the humiliation of the seven years war in the 1750s.Gribeauval,a french officer serving in the allied austrian army under Lichtenstein,the austrian artillery expert observed the 'lichtenstein system'-then considered the most modern artillery system in existence firsthand.He returned to france with his own set of ideas and a mind to reform france's artillery arm.Despite opposition from factions at the court this proceeded.The great effects of this modernization were felt in 2 areas- Standardisation and mobility,with accuracy being a lesser third.



Standardization Reforms -

1)Reduction in calibres - Gribeauval standardized field artillery calibres on 4pdr,8pdr and 12pdr guns,plus howitzers and siege artillery.From the earlier myriad calibres this standardization of guns with specific roles -battalion level,brigade level and army level fire support was an important step forward.

2)Introduction of interchangeable parts and wheels -
"The principle of standardisation is today accepted as essential to all military equipment,but in the 18th century it was revolutionary. Each manufacturing workshop would have its own foibles and peculiarities, even when it was supposedly working to a centralised pattern.For this reason the various types of equipment with an army would not have interchangeable
parts, and repairs on campaign would be uneccessarily difficult. Spare parts could often not be fitted without alterations, and badly damaged vehicles could not easily be cannibalised to repair others." -Grifith.

Mobility Reforms -

1)Redesigned carriages with lesser weight and better mobility.
2)Introduced double file of horses instead of single file in horse batteries.
3)Decreased weight of guns but increased firing range with smaller charge and better manufacturing process.
4)Did away with extensive ornamentation on the guns.Guns were simpler,and lighter upto 45%!
5)Use of the bricole system.Several very important devices which allowed the guns to be manhandled with ease, thus bypassing the horse team for many movements in battle.
Bricoles were a set of drag ropes and levers by which the gun crew could pull their cannon easily in any direction. Gribeauval also used a split trail with a rounded base which did not stick in the ground when the cannon was pulled backwards.
Combined with this was the use of a long rope called prolonge which could be attached to the rear of the gun-carriage at one end, and to the limber at the other. The prolonge was very handy for rapid advances and retreats under fire.





(Blue red gunners,rest infantrymen or drivers attatched to crew)
Accuracy Reforms -

1)Intoroduction of elevating screws for easier raising of gun barrel
2)The old aiming mechanism was much improved, with an adjustable backsight instead of a rudimentary notch on the barrel.
3)Cannonballs were designed to fit more properly the bore of the cannon, - which reduced windage and improved accuracy of field cannons.
4)The gunners began using prefabricated powder amounts instead of loose powder -
"Gribeauval's ammunition was made up into standardised cartridges which ensured that
each shot was propelled by the same amount of powder as its predecessor. This meant that
adjustements of aim could be more sensitive, as well as giving great advantges in handling
the ammunition."

Starting with this excellent base,Napoleon further improved it by the introduction of the AN XI system in 1803.This however fully came into effect only around 1809,in 1805 france went to war with gribeauval guns.

TYPES OF FIELD GUNS(Siege not given)


''Artillery-The final argument of kings(ultimo regia regum)''-Louis XIV.


Gribeauval guns consisted of 4pdr battalion guns,8pdr brigade/divisional artillery and 12pdr heavy artillery.By 1805 the corps usually pooled its guns together and then distributed them among its divisions while keeping the heavy 12 pdrs in reserve.Each corps typically had 18-24 guns.

 

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Added to the these 3 types of flat projectile field guns,the artillery also had 6'4'' howitzers which fired parabolic trajectory and could hit targets hiding behind natural obstacles.Their range was however shorter than the field guns employing direct fire method.12pdrs were effective while using roundshot upto 1900 yards and 800 yards for canister.8 pounders 1250 yards and 600 yards and the light guns even less.However the heavier guns had slower rate of fire and lesser mobility.

ORGANIZATION:





French artillery was divided into foot artillery (Artillerie a pied) and horse artillery.2 guns formed a squad,2 squads a section,2 sections a company of 8 guns.10 companies formed a battalion,and 2 battalions a regiment.An artillery regiment was the administrative unit in theory consisting of 20 companies and 160 guns.The company was the basic tactical unit.Throughout the napoleonic wars 8 total artillery regiments were created with varying strengths in different phases.

Artillery company, or battery, was the basic tactical unit of artillery. It consisted of 100 to 120 men with 6 cannons and 2 six-inch howitzers. During a longer campaign the company would be reduced to 3 or 4 guns as there were losses among the gunners.The companies were distributed among the various army corps.In 1805 an artillery company consisted of -
-4 officers
- 9 NCOs
- 86 gunners
- 2 musicians
- 4 others

These were supported by a seperate company from the artillery train composed of drivers.The french were unique in organizing seperate artillery train companies of military personnel.Earlier guns were driven by civilian contractors who often abandoned the guns in danger.Bonaparte abolished this practice which was still prevelant in the rival armies save britain when he created the artillery train in 1800.This had a great effect on the effectiveness of the artillery.
"Once the foot artillery battery line was established the drivers would often dismount and lay on the ground with their reins in their hands, depending on the amount of hostile fire being received. This was not possible with horse artillery which would change positions rapidly, and in some cases so did foot artillery batteries."
The train company which had the reserve ammunition caissons consisted of -
- 2 officers
- 7-10 NCOs
- 2 trumpeters
- 84 privates
There were also 2 blacksmiths and 2 harness makers.




The ammunition was kept in caissons,designed by Gribeauval to hold the new 'fixed' ammunition, i.e. projectile and propellant made up into one. The caisson was an 11-foot long, narrow-bodied wagon with a sloping lid hinged to open, the interior being divided into compartments for the assembled rounds. Powder and matches were also carried in the caisson.Only one caisson per gun was kept with the battery in combat. "The rest of the caissons were used in a running shuttle service between the firing battery and the artillery parks when in action.The standard load of a 12pdr gribeauval caisson was12pdr - 48 cannonballs, 12 big and 8 small canister /8pdr - 62 cannonballs, 10 big and 20 small canister.(note the racks for keeping cannonballs inside the caissons)In 1805 France had 10 bataillons du train d’artillerie (eight in 1808). Each battalion consisted of one elite company and four center companies. The elite company (best draft horses and best drivers) was assigned to a battery of horse artillery. The center companies were assigned to foot batteries.The horse artillery had double ammo loads,while the guard artillery had triple.

HORSE ARTILLERY:


''They move their guns around like pistols''-An astonished wellington at waterloo.

Horse artillery was a type of light, fast-moving and fast-firing artillery which provided highly mobile fire support.
A precursor of modern Self propelled artillery, it consisted of light cannons attached to light but sturdy two-wheeled caissons or limbers, with the individual crewmen riding either the horses or the caissons into battle. This was in contrast to foot artillery where the pieces were heavier and the crew marched on foot.Once in position, horse artillery crews were trained to quickly dismount, deploy or "unlimber" their guns, then rapidly fire roundshot or canister at the enemy. They could then just as rapidly "limber-up" (reattach the guns to the caissons), remount, and be ready to move to a new position, similar to the shoot-and scoot tactics of their modern counterparts.




Horse artillery was highly versatile and often supported friendly cavalry units by disrupting enemy formations such as infantry squares with rapid concentrated fire. This would leave the enemy infantry vulnerable to cavalry charges. Their mobility also enabled them to outmaneuver enemy foot artillery units, and to act as a rearguard(in concert with friendly cavalry) to cover the retreat of slower units.Horse artillery was first introduced by the swedes under gustavas adolphus and used in scale by the russians.During the revolution it had become especially popular.Horse artillery usually came under the command of cavalry divisions, , in cases horse artillery was used as a rapid response force, repulsing attacks and assisting the infantry.

The French horse gunners "were renowned for their courage, and no less for their contentious spirit. They pushed esprit de corps far beyond the point of virtue and believed themselves infinitely superior to their comrades in the foot artillery."
NEXT: Artillery tactics and placement;french use of artillery.

 

[Nilgiri]

FRENCH ARTILLERY TACTICS:


French artillery was tactically the most flexible and dominant of the napoleonic wars...this was not due to doctrine(there was no written standard manual till 1809) as such but due to younger more aggressive artillery officers,specialized professional artillery officers and gunners,and the advantages offered by the superb gribeauval system.

Basic cutaway of a cannon.Shot would be loaded efficiently using the rammer,then gun aimed,then the pricker would light the powedered charge.The resulting gunpowder explosion would hurl the cannonball towards the enemy.It was simple mechanics.Crew skill came in moving the gun,positioning it..reload time and aiming.The commanders job was to position and reposition his guns efficiently and co-ordinate their fire.

AMMUNITION:Ammunition consisted of essentially 3 types.Standard roundshot,grapeshot and canister shot.



Roundshot.Solid iron ball shaped ammunition,used for long range attack.It was the most common type of ammunition.It attacked not by explosion of high explosive(discovered later in 1859),but by bouncing and mowing down all enemies in its path until its lost its momentum and stopped.



Roundshot effect...it could be devastating to enemies in a straight line mowing down whole ranks.



Other types were grapeshot and canister shot.An extremely feared close range area attack weapon..it used the power of the gunpowder explosion to scatter a large number of small iron/lead balls in close proximity in a hail of metal (around max 500-800 metres compared to roundshot 1800 metres).Canister was excellent for destroying enemy infantry at point blank range.

 

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EFFECTS OF ARTILLERY:




Relative effects of canister and roundshot on line and column.Roundshot was brutal vs columns while canister was universally effective.Against line roundshot was less effective due to thin density and depth.




A prized angel of attack for gunners was the oblique shot,if the guns could succesfully flank an enemy formation results would be devastating.




Effects of roundshot on cuirassier armor.Artillery was the mass killer of the napoleonic battlefield.

NEXT:Breakdown of artillery tactics,french artillery generals.

 

[Nilgiri]

FRENCH ARTILLERY TACTICS -II



FORMATION OF GUNS:



A standard 8 gun french battery in column formation during march.Divided into 4 sections each with 2 guns.3 sections of field guns and 1 section of howitzers.Each gun had 3 caissons.The section thus had 6 caissons -2 immediately behidn ready to serve gun.And other 4 in the rear as reserve ammunition.




Deployment of a gun battery.The battery was served by 3 lines of caissons well spaced.The caissons of the first line came forward one at a time and replenished the whole battery,rather than the individual guns.They would then go to the rear line and a loaded caisson from the 2nd line would take its place in the first line.In this way the ammunition supply was cycled while being kept at a safe distance from the front and ready to be hauled away at the approach of danger.

RECONSSAINCE AND POSITIONING OF GUNS:

Reconssaince was the most important part of the artillery commander's responsibility.With good siting of guns a battery could dominate 3 times its number.Placed poorly results would be disastrous.He was helped in recon by his escort of 2 infantry companies which were allocated to protect the battery.First he had to determine the intentions and objectives of the overall area commander.Then obtain a spot which offered simultaneously the best field of fire but also natural protection.



Above shows proper and wrong employment of battery.In the proper deployment..gun is well protected beyond slope with a gentle slope forward allowing for bouncing and richoting of roundshot into advancing enemy infantry.Caissons are protected by slope.In first picture,both gun and caissons are exposed..enemy infantry are irregularly covered by field of fire due to angle and slope is too steep for richochet.Wellington often used to place his infantry on reverse slopes to frustrate french artillery.



Employment of guns in a square.Guns in the vulnerable corners provide fire support.If charged by cavalry the gunners leave the gun and take refuge inside the square,leaving the charging horsemen to be greeted by mukset volleys and a wedge of bayonets from the infantry of the square.

 

[Nilgiri]

Ideal tactical employment of artillery battery into the flanks of an advancing enemy force.This was rarely if ever achieved in reality except in a well prepared ambush.When done..the enemy force would collapse in minutes.



Best positioning of batteries against an enemy.A v-shaped formation catching the enemy in a hideous crossfire of guns.Guns are also well spaced and less vulnerable to attack.




The french were the boldest and most capable in employing the flank attack..they would manuevre their batteries to almost point blank range with incredible bravado from their gunners.This however resulted in high casualities,as the closer they came the more vulnerable they were to sharpshooters and cavalry attack.Horse artillery was excellent in flank attacks as it could deploy and redeploy quickly giving an enemy less time to react.

NEXT:FRENCH ARTILLERY COMMANDERS AND CASE STUDIES OF FRENCH ARTILLERY USAGE-THE GRAND BATTERY TACTIC.

 

[Nilgiri]

FRENCH BATTERY TACTICS


THE FLYING BATTERY:The standard artillery tactic.Designed to take advantage of French artillery's mobility and training. A battery would move to one area on the field, lay down a short, sharp barrage, then rapidly redeploy to another area and fire another barrage, then quickly redeploy again, etc. The combined, cumulative effect of numerous batteries doing this all along the enemy's lines could be devastating. The horse artillery were especially well suited for this tactic. Napoleon used it to great success in the Armée's early campaigns. Its flexibility allowed him to quickly mass well-aimed fire anywhere it was needed. But it required superbly trained and conditioned artillerymen and horses as well as close command, coordination and control in order to work.
THE GRAND BATTERY :Artillery batteries were allocated at the divisional level for fire support..however manuevering individual batteries into flank attacks was not always feasible due to terrain,enemy numbers etc.The french increasingly used artillery on a wider scale as the number of combatants increased through the napoleonic wars a new tactic that came to be known as the grand battery.An alternative artillery tactic, when circumstances prohibited the flying batteries. Artillery would mass its fire at a single, crucial point on the battlefield (usually against the enemy's centre). It could be devastating if the enemy was caught by surprise or in the open. But massing large numbers of guns in a single area without the enemy's knowledge could be tricky. Once the batterie opened fire and its target became clear, measures could be taken to avoid it. It was also vulnerable to counter battery fire from enemy artillery and needed protection from cavalry attack. Although this has become the most well known French artillery tactic, Napoleon preferred the flying batteries and used it only when he had to or thought it posed a better chance of success. Often at the start of a battle, he would mass batteries into a Big Battery, then after a few salvoes, break it up into flying batteries. In the early campaigns it was rarely used, but as the quantity of the Armée's horses and quality of its artillerymen declined, Bonaparte would be forced to employ it much more frequently in later battles.

The embryonic employment of grand batteries were noted at castiglione 1796 in italy and at marengo 1800.Both times marmont(artillery general) massed around 20 guns at a decisive point and time to create a breakthrough.Smaller grand batteries were employed at austerlitz 1805 and jena 1806.The first employment of a real grand battery came at friedland 1807 under senarmont(artillery general) massed 38 guns to turn the battle.From the post 1808 period with huge numbers of combatants enormous 100 gun batteries were employed.Towards the end the allies too employed grand batteries ,but in a more crude fashion.

THE ROLE OF THE ARMY ARTILLERY RESERVE:
Napoleon pioneered the use of the army level artillery reserve to be deployed only at the critical hour at the decisive point.His elite imperial guard artillery which had the best gunners and triple ammunition provisions,and was mostly horsed played this role which was hitherto unknown in europe(batteries distributed amongst infantry).Napoleon would combine the organic artillery of the units from a sector in the battlefield with the freshly deployed guard artillery to create a massed grand battery to produce the breakthrough in that chosen sector.(fully explained later in napoleon's art of war section)

EMPLOYMENT OF THE GRAND BATTERY:

1] CASE STUDY 1: FRIEDLAND 1807




Just going to see the decisive role of artillery in some of napoleon's battles in a very rudimentary manner.Freidland phase

1.Lannes apparently isolated corps is attacked by bennigsen who hopes to destroy it before reinforcements can arrive as lannes 25,000 men hold out in a desperate defense against bennigsen's 60,000-the french corps system and napoleon's battalion carre formation shows its strength.Rapid french reinforcements have arrived and now napoleon outnumbers bennigsen who is in a false position with a river on his back and just a few bridges as his retreat path.Lannes flanks have been reinforced by mortier's corps and grouchy's cavalry on the left.And victor's corps and ney's arriving corps on the right.Imperial guard is the reserve under besseires.Napoleon has achieved superior concentration yet again,his plan is a simple flank attack using ney's corps as the spearhead through the forest along with pinning attacks on the centre,to constrict the russian centre and left wing into the restricted horseshoe shaped space with their backs to the alle river and only a couple of bridges as the escape route.Grouchy and mortier will hold defensively on the left flank.Lannes exhausted corps will be rested.



2.Ney attacks but his attack is dispersed by the woods,russian artillery fire from across the river and platov's cossack attack.He is forced back in disarray.At this point dupont's division of victor's corps is in the lead of the french right.Senarmont,divisional artillery commander of victor's corps sees an oppurtunity,obtains permission for victor to mass all the guns(38) into a single battery and recklessly advances it slowly and methodically into the flank of the depressed russian left flank first into 200 metres then to a mere point blank range of 60 metres-into musket range!.Napoleon thought he was deserting!At this range the devastating canister fire blows out the russian left flank,the russian guard attempting to counterattack suffers the same fate.Senarmont lost a large number of his gunners and was himself wounded in this reckless artillery charge but single handedly turned the battle.



3.He doesn't stop there.After blowing out the russian left,he suppresses the russian battery across the river and provides fire support to ney's regrouped forces as dupont and ney break through and storm friedland town and seize the bridges,The french win a decisive victory ending the war of the 4th coalition.

HOW HE DID IT -



Senarmont obtains permission to mass all the guns of victor's corps-38 in total.4 heavy 12-pounders,4 light 4-pounders,8 howitzers and 22 medium 6-pounder pieces.Senarmont divided his guns into 3 provisional batteries- 2 main batteries each of 10 6-pounders,2 4-pounders and 4 howitzers.The heavy 12 pounders were held back in a reserve in a protected position.The 2 big batteries were placed on 2 hillocks to obtain a crossfire with the reserve heavy battery from the back providing long range fire support.Fire opened at 400 metres but after 5-6 shots from the guns senarmont advanced his batteries alternately(1 advancing while other firing) to a mere 200 metres,this audacious 'artillery charge' was escorted by 4 dragoon regiments and 1 infantry battalion.At 200 metres the 2 batteries fired about 20 roundshot from each gun and were beginning to have a telling effect.Senarmont ignored pleas for him to return to safer distance.Here however they were somewhat lucky in that russian counter battery fire from across the river alle was not effective due to dense smoke and bad positioning which left part of their own troops in the field of fire of the guns.
At this juncture,senarmont joined both batteries together and advanced into 60 metres!Here they opened up a devastating canister fire blowing out a hole in the russian line-4000 men killed in less than half an hour and survivors retreated.With the infantry retreating russian gunners too retired,the russian cavalry attempted a desperate charge but were repulsed by the escort and massed artillery fire from senarmont.He then proceeded to provide direct fire support to ney's attack on freidland town.Senarmont's virtuoso feat set a new standard in grand battery usage among french artillery commanders.

 

[Nilgiri]

2] CASE STUDY 2 : WAGRAM 1809



Over 300,000 french and austrian troops battle for the fate of germany at wagram outside vienna.Napoleon has accepted a highly risky battle with a river to his back.Under cover of night the 150,000+ french force crosses the danube and secures a beachhead from their staging base at the island of lobau.Initially decieved the alerted Archduke charles and his austrians are nowwaiting for them.It is day 2 of the battle.Napoleon's plan is a outflanking attack by his superb III corps under davout on the austrian left flank,while pinning attacks along the centre keep the austrian forces occupied.Should the austrians shift reserves to reinforce the left..he would unleash his reserves incluidng the imperial guard and breakthrough the weakened austrian centre.However the austrians attack first,archduke charles plans an ambitious double envelopment that would shatter both french flanks and annihilate the whole french army with its rear to the river.Davout soon stops the attack on him cold on the french right,napoleon sends reinforcement to his right to davout but has them returned when it is clear davout has the situation under control.At the centre the french attack by massena and bernadotte's corps on aderklaa have not made significant progress and cost heavy casualities.At this juncture the austrian right wing forces the corps of Kollowrath and klenau begin their other pincer attack ,klenau sweeps aside boudet's small rearguard and heads straight for the french rear,while kollowrat threatens massena's already bloodied corps from the left.The hour of crisis for the french has arrived.




Napoleon reacts in a bold and unconventional manner-rather than dispatching the guard and his infantry reserve from his centre south to block klenau's advance,He orders massena's corps to march south in full view of kollowrath advancing corps to act as a blocking force in klenau's advance.This is apparently a suicide move..massena would have to move with his flank exposed to kollowrath's advance to reach his position.Here napoleon launches his heavy cavalry reserve at kollowrat to buy time in a costly but necessary spoiling attack with massed cavalry.Behind this distraction he masses all the guns of the corps of the area and adds the reserve imperial guard artillery-the army artillery reserve to form a massive 102 gun grand battery under lauriston.(the long blue bar with a small tip in the centre behind the infantry assault semi square with written serras is the grand battery)Kolowrat's advancing force runs straight into this grand battery and is met by a hail of relentless artillery bombardment..devastated, it is forced to retire in disarray.Under the cover of this massena safely conducts his march and blocks any further advance from klenau.Meanwhile on the right davout's superb III corps slowly but inexorably turns the austrian left wing.With the austrian right wing's momentum exhausted,and left wing turned..napoleon now releases his infantry reserve-one that he had preserved in a masterstroke rather than deploy earlier to prop up his left, formed in a gigantic semi-square and attacks the austrian centre.This attack is supported by the french grand battery,and the combined assault at aderklaa and sussanbronn breaks through austrian resistance and wins the battle.





USE AT WAGRAM:Wagram has been called the first true artillery battle.Napoleon declared afterwards- 'My artillery has won the battle'.The grand battery was used as both a disruptive and an assault tool.It stopped kollowrath's advance cold and covered massena's movement.Then it went on the offensive and pounded the austrian centre for the final push.However casualities here were far larger than senarmont's,this huge exposed battery came under effective counter bombardment by the austrians and though its silenced its counterparts by volume of firepower..losses were high among the gun crews.Also the infantry exploitation was slow and clumsy and diluted the effect of the bombardment.Nevertheless wagram saw the first employment of the monstrous grand batteries of the late napoleonic period.

NEXT:
Case study Hanau 1813 & French artillery generals:French imperial guard:Napoleon's Art of war:Russian Army:Austrian Army - The campaign begins.